Pathophysiology Exam 3 Comprehensive Study Guide Flashcards

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key terms for the Digestive, Cardiovascular, and Nervous systems as presented in the NSG3113 Pathophysiology Exam 3 study guide.

Peristalsis

The squeezing muscle movements that push food through your digestive tract — like squeezing toothpaste down a tube.

Dysphagia

Difficulty swallowing. 'Dys' = difficult, 'phagia' = swallowing.

Gastroesophageal Reflux (GERD)

When stomach acid splashes back UP into the esophagus (food pipe). Like a reverse waterfall.

Peptic Ulcer

A sore (hole) in the lining of the stomach or small intestine caused by stomach acid eating through the protective layer.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)

A sneaky bacteria that burrows into the stomach lining and causes ulcers. Named after the corkscrew (helix) shape it uses to drill in.

Gastritis

Inflammation (redness and irritation) of the stomach lining. '-itis' always means inflammation.

Malabsorption

When the intestines cannot properly absorb nutrients from food — even if you eat well, your body doesn't get the vitamins/minerals.

Celiac Disease

An autoimmune disorder where eating gluten (a protein in wheat, barley, rye) destroys the finger-like villi in the small intestine.

Villi / Microvilli

Tiny finger-like projections lining the small intestine that dramatically increase the surface area for absorbing nutrients. Destroying these = malabsorption.

Crohn's Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that can affect ANY part of the digestive tract from mouth to anus, causing patchy 'skip lesions.'

Ulcerative Colitis (UC)

IBD that affects ONLY the colon (large intestine) and rectum, causing continuous ulcers and bloody diarrhea.

Diverticulosis

Small pouches (diverticula) that form in weak spots of the colon wall, like inner tubes bulging through tire cracks.

Diverticulitis

When those pouches become INFECTED and inflamed. '-itis' = inflammation. Can cause severe left lower abdominal pain.

Appendicitis

Inflammation of the appendix. A medical emergency — can rupture and spread infection throughout the abdomen (peritonitis).

Peritonitis

Inflammation of the peritoneum (the lining covering all abdominal organs). LIFE-THREATENING. Caused by rupture or perforation.

Ileus

When the intestines stop moving (paralysis). No peristalsis = no movement of food/gas. Causes bloating, no bowel sounds.

Bowel Obstruction

A physical blockage preventing anything from passing through the intestine — can be mechanical (something blocking) or functional (ileus).

Hernia

When an organ or tissue pushes through a weak spot in muscle or tissue. Example: intestine pushing through abdominal wall.

Strangulated Hernia

When a hernia gets trapped and its blood supply gets cut off — a surgical EMERGENCY.

Cirrhosis

Severe scarring of the liver where normal liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue. The liver can no longer do its job.

Portal Hypertension

High blood pressure in the portal vein (brings blood from intestines to liver). Caused by liver disease blocking blood flow.

Ascites

Fluid that builds up in the abdomen due to portal hypertension and low albumin levels. The belly looks swollen/pregnant.

Varices (Esophageal)

Enlarged, swollen veins in the esophagus caused by portal hypertension — like varicose veins. Can RUPTURE and cause massive bleeding.

Hepatic Encephalopathy

Brain dysfunction caused by the liver failing to remove toxins (especially ammonia) from the blood. Causes confusion and coma.

Jaundice

Yellow coloring of skin and eyes caused by buildup of bilirubin (yellow pigment from broken-down red blood cells). Liver can't process it.

Cholecystitis

Inflammation of the gallbladder. Usually caused by gallstones blocking the bile duct.

Cholelithiasis

Gallstones — hardened deposits of cholesterol or bile salts that form in the gallbladder.

Pancreatitis

Inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas begins digesting itself with its own enzymes. Extremely painful.

Colorectal Cancer

Cancer of the colon or rectum. Often starts as polyps (growths). Detected by colonoscopy.

Carcinoid Tumor

Slow-growing tumor usually in the GI tract that can release serotonin — causing flushing, diarrhea, wheezing.

Steatorrhea

Fatty, oily, foul-smelling stools — a sign of fat malabsorption (seen in pancreatitis, celiac disease, Crohn's).

McBurney's Point

A specific spot in the lower right abdomen — pressing here causes severe pain in appendicitis.

Murphy's Sign

Pain when pressing under the right rib cage during inhalation — a sign of cholecystitis (gallbladder inflammation).

Hematemesis

Vomiting blood — an emergency. Can be from esophageal varices, peptic ulcer, or Mallory-Weiss tear.

Melena

Black, tarry, foul-smelling stool — indicates UPPER GI bleeding (blood has been digested and turned black).

Hematochezia

Bright red blood in the stool — indicates LOWER GI bleeding (blood has NOT been digested).

Atherosclerosis

Buildup of fatty plaques (atheroma) inside artery walls, making them narrow, hard, and less flexible. Think of it as rust clogging a pipe.

Arteriosclerosis

Hardening and loss of elasticity of arteries in general (includes atherosclerosis as a type).

Plaque

A buildup of cholesterol, inflammatory cells, and fibrous tissue inside artery walls. Can rupture and trigger a clot.

Ischemia

Not enough blood flow/oxygen to a tissue. Cells begin to suffer but haven't died yet.

Infarction

Tissue death due to complete loss of blood supply (ischemia that has gone too far).

Thrombus

A blood clot that forms and stays in one place (like cement in a pipe).

Embolus

A blood clot (or other material) that breaks free and travels through the blood to block another vessel. 'Embolus' = traveler.

Angina Pectoris

Chest pain from temporary, reversible ischemia of the heart muscle. Pain with exertion that goes away with rest.

Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Heart attack — permanent death of heart muscle cells due to complete blockage of a coronary artery.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Narrowing of coronary arteries (arteries that feed the heart itself) due to atherosclerosis.

Hypertension (HTN)

Persistently high blood pressure ($\ge 130/80\,mmHg$ per 2017 ACC/AHA guidelines). A silent killer.

Heart Failure (HF)

The heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. Can be left-sided, right-sided, or both.

Left Heart Failure

The left ventricle fails to pump blood OUT to the body \rightarrow blood backs up into the lungs \rightarrow pulmonary edema.

Right Heart Failure

The right ventricle fails to pump blood to the lungs \rightarrow blood backs up in the venous system \rightarrow peripheral edema, ascites, JVD.

Ejection Fraction (EF)

Percentage of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each beat. Normal = $55-70\%$. $<40\%$ = reduced EF heart failure (HFrEF).

Cardiac Output (CO)

Amount of blood the heart pumps per minute. $CO = \text{Heart Rate} \times \text{Stroke Volume}$. Normal = $4-8\,L/min$.

Preload

The amount of blood filling the heart BEFORE it contracts. Increased by fluid overload.

Afterload

The resistance the heart must pump AGAINST. Increased by hypertension (makes the heart work harder).

Dysrhythmia/Arrhythmia

Abnormal heart rhythm — can be too fast, too slow, or irregular.

Atrial Fibrillation (A-Fib)

Chaotic, irregular firing of the atria. No organized 'p waves.' Risk of clot formation \rightarrow stroke.

Ventricular Fibrillation (V-Fib)

Chaotic, ineffective twitching of the ventricles. NO cardiac output. FATAL without immediate defibrillation.

Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

Blood clot in a deep vein, usually the leg. Risk: immobility, surgery, cancer, hypercoagulability.

Pulmonary Embolism (PE)

DVT breaks free and travels to the lungs, blocking a pulmonary artery. Can be fatal.

Virchow's Triad

3 factors that predispose to clot formation: stasis (slow blood flow), endothelial injury, hypercoagulability.

Shock

A life-threatening state where inadequate blood flow means cells are not getting enough oxygen to survive.

Pericarditis

Inflammation of the pericardium (sac surrounding the heart). Causes sharp chest pain, pericardial friction rub.

Endocarditis

Infection of the inner heart lining, especially the valves. Bacteria attach to valves and form vegetations.

Valvular Heart Disease

Malfunction of heart valves — either stenosis (narrowing/won't open fully) or regurgitation (won't close properly = leaking).

Cardiomyopathy

Disease of the heart muscle itself, weakening its ability to pump. Can be dilated, hypertrophic, or restrictive.

Aneurysm

Abnormal bulging/dilation of a blood vessel wall. Like a bubble in a garden hose. Aortic aneurysms can rupture — fatal.

Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)

Narrowing of arteries supplying the legs due to atherosclerosis. Causes intermittent claudication (leg cramping with exercise).

Troponin

Proteins (Troponin I, Troponin T) released into the blood when heart muscle cells are damaged. MOST SPECIFIC marker for MI.

CK-MB

Creatine kinase isoenzyme found in heart muscle. Rises early in MI but less specific than troponin.

BNP / NT-proBNP

Brain Natriuretic Peptide — released by overstretched heart muscle in heart failure. Elevated BNP confirms heart failure. Normal is $<100\,pg/mL$.

Neuron

A nerve cell — the basic unit of the nervous system. Has a cell body, dendrites (receive signals), and axon (sends signals).

CNS (Central Nervous System)

Brain + spinal cord. The command center.

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

All nerves outside brain and spinal cord. Connects CNS to the rest of the body.

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

A tight protective shield of special cells that limits what can enter the brain from the bloodstream. Keeps out most toxins but also blocks many drugs.

Intracranial Pressure (ICP)

The pressure inside the skull. The skull is a fixed box — if swelling or bleeding increases volume inside, pressure rises and crushes brain tissue.

Cerebral Perfusion Pressure (CPP)

$CPP = \text{Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)} - \text{ICP}$. Minimum CPP needed = $60\,mmHg$. Too low = brain ischemia.

Cushing's Triad

Late sign of dangerously elevated ICP: Hypertension (with widened pulse pressure) + Bradycardia + Irregular respirations. EMERGENCY.

Herniation

When brain tissue is pushed through an opening due to severe swelling — brain stem herniation is FATAL.

Stroke (CVA)

Cerebrovascular Accident — sudden interruption of blood supply to the brain, causing brain cell death.

Ischemic Stroke

Stroke caused by a clot blocking a cerebral artery (87% of strokes). Treatable with tPA if caught in time.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

Stroke caused by bleeding INTO the brain. tPA is CONTRAINDICATED.

TIA (Transient Ischemic Attack)

A mini-stroke — same symptoms as stroke but resolve within 24 hours (usually minutes). A major WARNING sign.

Aphasia

Inability to speak or understand language due to brain damage. Broca's = expressive (can't speak). Wernicke's = receptive (can't understand).

Hemiplegia

Paralysis on ONE side of the body. With stroke, damage to LEFT brain = RIGHT body paralysis.

Neglect Syndrome

Patient ignores one side of their body/environment. Common with RIGHT hemisphere stroke.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges (membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord). Can be bacterial, viral, or fungal.

Encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain tissue itself. Often viral (herpes simplex most common).

Epilepsy

A chronic condition characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures.

Status Epilepticus

A seizure lasting $>5$ minutes OR 2+ seizures without full recovery between them. MEDICAL EMERGENCY.

Neurogenic Shock

After high spinal cord injury — loss of sympathetic tone \rightarrow vasodilation \rightarrow bradycardia + hypotension (paradoxically warm skin unlike other shocks).

Autonomic Dysreflexia

A hypertensive emergency seen in SCI above T6 — uncontrolled sympathetic response to a stimulus below the injury. LIFE-THREATENING.

Parkinson's Disease

Progressive degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra \rightarrow movement disorder.

Alzheimer's Disease

Most common type of dementia — progressive loss of memory and cognitive function due to amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Autoimmune destruction of myelin sheath (the insulating cover of nerve axons) \rightarrow impaired nerve conduction.

Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)

Autoimmune attack on peripheral nerves causing ascending paralysis — starts in feet, travels upward, can affect breathing.

Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

Autoimmune disease where antibodies block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction \rightarrow muscle weakness, especially with activity.

Delirium

Acute, sudden-onset confusion with fluctuating level of consciousness. Reversible. Caused by illness, meds, metabolic imbalance.

Epidural Hematoma

Bleeding between skull and dura mater — usually from MIDDLE MENINGEAL ARTERY tear. Classic: lucid interval then rapid deterioration. EMERGENCY.

Subdural Hematoma

Bleeding between the dura mater and brain (bridging veins tear). Can be acute (trauma) or chronic (elderly, minor injury).