unit 3 - topic 2 learning

classical conditioning

focuses on learning through association, where a previously neutral stimulus causes a reflex response.

key terms

response and reflex response

response

is the behaviour that emerges as a result of a stimulus

reflex response

an automatic, involuntary and almost instantaneous response to a stimulus.

reflex components

NS, UCS, UCR, CS, CR

neutral stimulus (NS)

on it’s own does not elicit a particular response - e.g. “lemon”

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

an inherent ability to elicit the reflex response - e.g. something thrown at you

unconditioned response (UCR)

the reflexive reaction to a specific unconditioned stimulus - e.g. causes a flinch

conditioned stimulus (CS)

elicits a particular due to learning (same as NS) - e.g. “lemon”

conditioned response (CR)

reflex response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus as a consequence of learning (same as UCR) - e.g. causes a flinch

key principles of classical conditioning

acquisition, stimulus generalisation, discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery

acquisition

when the neutral stimulus s repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus and the association is formed = classical conditioning

stimulus generalisation

a similar stimulus to the conditioned stimulus elicits the same response

discrimination

a stimulus does no elicit the same response, because it differs too significantly from the conditioned stimulus

extinction

the repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus on its own, ceases to elicit the conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

the sudden reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response after the unconditioned stimulus has been absent for some time

Study: Pavlov’s Dog (1902)

aim, method, procedure, findings, contributions, and crit and lims

aim

to investigate classical conditioning in dogs

method

subjects: dogs

materials: meat powder, a bell, and a Pavlovian apparatus

design: IV is the presentation of the stimuli, DV is the times at which the dogs salivated and amount of saliva secreted

procedure

1. dogs were placed in the Pavlovian apparatus

2. a bell was rung and salvation did not occur (ns)

3. meat powder was given to the dogs (ucs) = production of saliva (ucr)

4. the bell was then rung just before providing the dog with meat power (ucs)

5. repeated multiple times with saliva produced each time (ucr)

6. when the bell was then sounded on its own salivation occurred (cs)

7. the sound of the bell was a ns but now a cs that elicited the cr of salivation = classical conditioning occurred

key findings

the dogs learnt to associate the ns of the bell with a reflex response, leading to the neutral response being a conditioned response

contributions to psychology

• profoundly impacted the understanding of learning in psychology

• data was quantitative with added empirical evidence

• study provided a link between physiological and psychological processes

crits and lims

• cannot be generalised to humans as dogs were used

• dogs were known to be harmed = not following animal ethics

Study: Little Albert (Watson and Rayner 1920)

aim, method, procedure, findings, contributions, and crit and lims

aim

to asses whether a child can be conditioned to feel hear through the simultaneous presentation of a white rat and the loud noise of a hammer hitting a metal bar

*further investigated if the fear response is successfully elicited whether it can be generalised to other similar stimuli

method

participant: 11 month old boy named albert

materials: a white rat, a rabbit, a seal skin coat, Santa clause mask, metal pole and a hammer

design: IV is exposure to various stimuli and pairing of stimuli, DV is the observed emotional and behavioural response

procedure

1. (find ns) albert is seated and presented with a white rat. the rat = ns, as no reflex was seen initially

2. (find ucs and ucr) after the presentation of ns alone, a metal bar was struck with a hammer causing a loud noise. albert showed fear. fear = ucr, loud noise = ucs.

3. (pairing/cr) the rat was presented simultaneously to the loud noise. this caused fear.

4. (cause cr) the rat became the cs causing fear which became the cr (the fear was caused without the loud noise)

5. (stimuli generalisation) albert was then exposed to stimuli that shared similar characteristics to the rat = hair/fur. all of these caused fear/the cr.

key findings

• albert was conditioned to feel fear due to the repeat pairings of the rat (ns) and the noise (ucs)

• albert generalised his emotional response to all similar stimuli presented = stimulus generalisation

contributions to psychology

• the experiment gave a clear demonstration of how classical conditioning can be used to create a fear response. led to research that discovered phobias and treatment of phobias through learning theories.

• led to widespread ethical debate, informed consent became a requirement for vulnerable groups, the consent needed to include ALL possible risks and details of the study

crits and lims

• Watson did not believe that little albert would be harmed. it is evident that he was psychologically harmed following his involvement in the study

• albert’s mother was not fully informed of the psychological risks, therefor she did not give informed consent - consent does not = informed consent

*she stated that if she knew the risks/what was involved she would not have said yes

operant conditioning

type of learning whereby the consequence of behaviour determines whether it will be repeated or not

*voluntary behaviour

reinforcement

consequence to increase the behaviours

punishment

consequence to decrease the behaviours

positive

to add something desirable/undesirable

negative

to take away something desirable/undesirable

positive reinforcement

adding something desirable to increase behaviour

negative reinforcement

taking away something undesirable to increase behaviour

positive punishment

adding something undesirable to decrease behaviour

negative punishment

taking away something desirable to decrease behaviour

the 3 phase model (abc)

antecedent

internal or external conditions that presented right before the behaviour/response

behaviour

the observed behaviour resulting from the antecedent (physical)

consequence

the outcome of the behaviour

reinforcement schedules

continuous, intermittent

continuous

reinforcement of a desired behaviour is given every time = good for new behaviour

intermittent

once the behaviour is learnt, various schedules can be used to further strengthen the behaviour

key terms for intermittent reinforcement

ratio, interval, fixed, variable

ratio

responses

interval

time

fixed

set number/time

variable

unpredictable number/time

fixed ratio

following a set number of responses

fixed interval

at fixed time intervals

variable ratio

after an unpredictable number of responses

variable interval

at irregular/unpredictable time intervals

Study: Law of Effect (Thorndike 1898)

aim, method, procedure, findings, contributions, and crit and lims

aim

to examine the influence of reinforcement on cats trying to escape a puzzle box to reach food.

method

subjects: 13 cats

materials: puzzle boxes, cat food, clock

iv: number of times that cats were placed in the puzzle box

dv: length of time it took for cats to escape the puzzle box

procedure

1. a cat is placed in the puzzle box hungry. fish/food is placed outside the box (box has slats so the cat can see the food)

2. the door is closed and a mechanism clicks the door shut

3. the time it took for the cat to complete the puzzle and get out of the box was recorded. this was repeated multiple times on different cats and a range of boxes.

key findings

• cats used trial and error to first solve the puzzle box. once placed back in the box they made the conscious decision to push the lever to escape the box.

• the food = positive reinforcement = operant conditioning. what he aimed to do worked

• the 2nd time the cat was placed into the box, the time taken to escape dramatically reduced

contributions to psychology

• the research was the foundation on which theorists built their understanding of operant conditioning

• skinner’s work (with pigeons) was developed from Thorndike’s experiment and findings

crits and lims

• based on animal study - cannot be generalised to human due to different cognitive abilities

• the study would not meet ethical guidelines today, as it can be argued the cats were distressed when hungry and repeatedly placed in boxes they had to escape

Study: Skinner’s Box (Skinner 1938)

aim, method, procedure, findings, contributions, and crit and lims

aim

to demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons

method

subjects: 8 pigeons

materials: experimental cage with attached timber and food hopper, bird feed

iv: the time interval at which the food was released

dv: observed behaviours of the pigeons

procedure

1. the pigeons were hungry and placed into skinner’s box for a few minutes each day

2. a timer was programmed to present food to the pigeon at set intervals via a hopper that tipped down through an opening in the cage wall

3. the interval at which the hopper would tip was manipulated, however, the length of time that it stayed down for was 5 seconds each time - a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

key findings

• operant conditioning was observed in 6/8 out of the pigeons. each pigeon was conditioned to perform a unique behaviour = which ever behaviour they did before the hopper was initially tipped.

• shorter intervals between the release of food were found to be effective (15 secs = effective)

• no cause-and-effect relationship between behaviour of the pigeon and release of food

contributions to psychology

• skinner’s pigeons illustrated how animals can develop ‘superstitious’ behaviours similar to humans

• a cause-and-effect relationship is not required to condition a behaviour

crits and lims

• animal ethics- the pigeons were starved and found to be malnourished

• due to the use of pigeons, it cannot be generalised to humans

Observational learning

the learner watches a model, notices the consequences of their behaviour and then decides whether they will imitate the behaviour

model

setting the example

learner

observing the model

Bandura 1977

outlined 4 mediating processes required for successful observational conditioning/learning

1 attention

the learner must attend to the model’s behaviour and consequences

*the more relatable and likeable the model is to the learner, the more likely they will attend to their behaviour

2 retention

the behaviour must be stored in the memory so it can be repeated later

*relies on cognitive level of the learner

*rehearsal may be used to assist in memory

3 reproduction

learner must have the physical and cognitive abilities to reproduce the behaviour

4 motivation

the learner requires an incentive and reason for wanting to replicate the models behaviour

vicarious reinforcement

positive consequences received by the model increases the likelihood of the learner imitating the models behaviour

*inversely negative consequences = less likely to imitate

Bandura’s observational learning theory (1977)

That a person is likely to learn a behaviour or emotion from observing that of a model

strengths

• trial and error/operant conditioning is not suitable for all types of learning

• there is empirical evidence to support observational learning (Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

limitations

• does not account for biological processes

• does not account for all types of behaviours

application to real world

teachers can use observational learning, specifically, vicarious reinforcement, to promote desirable behaviours and cease undesirable behaviours

study: Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961)

aim, method, procedure, key findings, contributions of the study, crits and lims

aim

to determine whether children who observe an adult behaving aggressively, will imitate that aggressive behaviour

method

participants: 36 boys and 36 girls all 3-4 (conveniently sampled from Stanford uni)

materials: bobo doll, craft items, a mallet and peg board, a dart gun, bears, tea set, a ball, cars, behaviour checklist and a clock

design: IV exposure of children to an aggressive adult model or a non-aggressive adult model, DV the observed aggressive behaviour

procedure stage 1

• children’s parents give consent, the children were randomly allocated into 1 of 3 conditions

• children from the experimental groups were brought into an experimental room. they completed a craft activity whilst an adult model was in the corner of the room

• children in the aggressive condition observed the adult model behave aggressively towards the bobo doll

-physical: punching, kicking, throwing, sitting on, hitting with mallet

-verbal: ‘pow’, ‘sock him in the nose’, ‘he keeps coming back for more’, ‘he is a tough fella isn’t he’

procedure stage 2

• after 10 mins of exposure, the experimenter takes each participant/child to a second room with desirable toys. they tell the children that the toys are reserved for other children to purposely frustrate the child

procedure stage 3

• third experimental room contained the materials. all groups participate in stage 3

• each child was observed for 20 minutes by a researcher through a two way mirror. researcher used pre-determined criteria

key findings

• children who observed an aggressive adult were more likely to mimic the aggressive behaviour. supporting SLT

• the boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour, while verbal behaviour was observed equally across both genders

• a higher rate of aggression was observed in children who watched a model of the same sex, rather than the opposite sex.

contributions

• TV sets became popular and research began on the effect of violence shown on TV and aggression in children

• bandura’s study was unique as it showcased that behaviour will still be modelled in a different situation than what was originally observed.

criticisms

• low validity due to lab setting

• children in aggressive condition who have never been exposed to aggressive behaviour may have caused distress (psychological harm)

Systematic desensitisation

a form of therapy based on classical conditioning principles that aims to extinguish the fear response through graduated/gradual exposure to the feared stimulus

*relies on relaxation techniques

phobia

intense and irritational fear to an object or situation that continues over time

phobias origin

phobias tend to originate from the pairing of stimuli where the conditioned response is fear

fear does not = a phobia (impedes daily functioning)

steps for systematic desensitisation

1. fear hierarchy is developed, progressing from least distressing to the most distressing

2. client is taught relaxation technique e.g. deep breathing

3. client is exposed to step 1 of fear hierarchy. they practice their relaxation technique simultaneously

*in vitro = imagined

*in vivo = in real life

*when client can manage step 1 whilst remaining relaxed, they can progress, but if fear occurs, they must restart

benefits of systematic desensitisation

• in vitro allows for practical issues that come with organising real life exposure to be avoided

• continuation of therapy is likely due to client being in control

limitations of systematic desensitisation

• exposure relying on visualisation is not suitable for clients who have difficulty imagining scenarios

• does not address the root cause of the phobia

token economy system

a behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning principles

*uses a symbolic reward to increase a target behaviour; uses positive reinforcement

2 types of reinforcers

secondary: 1st

primary: 2nd

secondary reinforcer

the use of symbolic token to reinforce/increase target behaviours

e.g. fake money, coffee stamps