Social Psychology - Exam 4

Hostile aggression

•Driven by anger

•Intent is to harm

•Motive is emotional

•Usually spontaneous

•More common in males

Instrumental aggression

•Goal Oriented

•A means to an end

•Motive is strategic

•Usually premeditated

•Preferred by females

Condry & Ross Experiment

• Same aggressive child behavior shown to participants.

• If participants thought the child was a boy, aggression seen as “normal.”

• If thought to be a girl, behavior seen as emotional/problematic.

• Shows gender stereotypes influence judgments of aggression.

Freud’s Theory of Aggression

• Eros = life instinct.

• Thanatos = death/destructive instinct linked to aggression.

• Id = impulsive desires.

• Ego = compromise/mediator.

• Superego = morality/conscience.

displaced aggression

Redirecting aggression toward a safer target.

• Example: angry at boss → yell at family member.

sublimination

Redirecting aggressive impulses into socially acceptable activities

• Example: sports, art, competition.

What is the evolutionary explanation for aggression?

Aggression evolved because it increased survival and reproductive success.

Uxoricide

The killing of a wife by her husband

Research shows a higher risk when men fear infidelity or jealousy

Paternity Confidence

A male’s certainty that a child is biologically his.

Cuckolding

Raising another man’s child unknowingly.

What brain structure is strongly linked to aggression?

Amygdala

What part of the brain helps regulate aggressive impulses?

prefrontal cortex

What hormone is associated with aggression?

Testosterone

What neurotransmitter is linked to impulsive aggression when levels are low?

Serotonin

(Low serotonin linked to impulsive aggression)

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

• Children watched adults behave aggressively toward doll.

• Children imitated aggressive behavior.

• supports social learning theory

Social learning theory & the steps

- The theory that much social behavior is learned through observing and imitating others.

• Observe model

• Imitate

• Reinforcement increases repetition

How can media influence aggression?

Media/game violence can model aggressive behavior and desensitize people to violence.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived compared to others

(subjective feeling that you have less than you deserve)

Catharsis

emotional release obtained though recalling and reliving past events, expressing emotions, etc.

Is catharsis effective at reducing aggression?

no, research generally shows catharsis increases rather than decreases aggression.

Ways to Reducing Aggression

• Reduce frustration

• Teach nonviolent conflict resolution

• Improve communication

• Reduce violent media

Need to belong

The Human need for close relationships and social connections. Related to Maslow’s hierarchy: belongingness is a basic psychological need.

Proximity

People near us become more likely friends/partners.

Geographic distance

Physical distance between people (how close they live, work, or spend time near each other).

functional distance

How often paths cross naturally (stairs, mailboxes, etc.)

mere-exposure effect

the tendency for people to develop a preference for things or people simply because they are familiar with them through repeated exposure. (Repeated exposure increases liking)

Hatfield “Computer Dance” Study

Researchers paired college students for a blind date-style dance using a “computer matching” system. Participants believed they were matched based on personality traits and interests, but the actual pairings were random.

After the dance, participants evaluated how much they liked their date and whether they wanted to see them again.

Even when people believe they are choosing based on personality or compatibility, physical attractiveness strongly shapes initial romantic attraction.

Matching Hypothesis

people are most likely to form relationships with others who are similar to them in physical attractiveness.

What is the physical attractiveness stereotype?

The belief that attractive people possess more positive/desirable traits

“what is beautiful is good.”

What did Snyder’s study demonstrate? (Self-fulfilling prophecy)

In the study, men spoke on the phone with women they believed were either attractive or unattractive (based on fake photos). When men thought the woman was attractive, they behaved more warmly and positively. As a result, the women responded in a friendlier and more confident way.

This showed that expectations about attractiveness can influence behavior, causing attractive people to actually develop more socially positive behaviors because they are treated more positively by others.

What makes an attractive face?

1. Symmetry – symmetrical faces are often seen as healthier and genetically fit

2. Averageness – faces that resemble the average of many faces are often rated as more attractive

3. Youthfulness - Clear skin and healthy appearance

What makes an attractive body?

For Women

Men often rate traits linked to fertility and health as attractive, such as:

• waist-to-hip ratio (often around 0.7)

• sizable breast

• shorter than them

For Men

Women often rate traits associated with strength, protection, or resources as attractive, such as:

• broad shoulders

• athletic build (not to muscular)

• taller than them

According to evolutionary theory, what do men often prioritize in attraction?

signs of fertility and health in women for reproduction

According to evolutionary theory, what do women often prioritize in attraction?

signs of strength, stability, or access to resources

Evolutionary vs. Pure Biological Explanations

Pure biological explanations focus on immediate physical causes such as hormones, genetics, and brain chemistry. These explain how attraction responses happen biologically.

Evolutionary explanations focus on why certain preferences may have developed over human history.

Do Opposites Attract?

No, research strongly supports similarity.

Complementarity

the idea that people are attracted to others whose traits “complete” or balance their own (for example, a dominant person with a submissive person).

We Like Those Who Like Us - Berscheid Research

Knowing someone likes us increases attraction toward them

Triangular Theory of Love

Intimacy – emotional closeness, trust, sharing, and connection

Passion – physical attraction, sexual desire, excitement

Commitment – the decision to maintain the relationship long-term

Types of love

• Infatuation

• Companionate love

• Consummate love

the ideal type of love in long-term romantic relationships

consummate love - intimacy, passion, commitment

Helping behavior

any action or Intentional behavior that benefits another person

example: helping someone carry groceries, giving directions, & donating money

Altruism

helping is motivated by a genuine concern for another person’s welfare, without expecting personal reward or benefit

Darley & Latané’s 5-Step Decision Tree of Helping

A person must:

1. Notice the event

2. Interpret it as an emergency

3. Take responsibility

4. Know how to help

5. Decide to actually help

If the person fails at any step, helping may not occur.

Bystander Effect

the tendency for people to be less likely to help when other people are present

(The more bystanders there are, the less likely any one individual is to intervene)

Pluralistic Ignorance

People look to others; if nobody reacts, assume no emergency

ex; If several people witness someone collapse but nobody reacts immediately, each person may assume others think the situation is not serious.

Diffusion of Responsibility

In large groups, we fail to accept personal responsibility, Everyone assumes someone else will help

Instead of thinking:

• “I need to help,”

they think:

• “Someone else will probably do it.”

Egoistic Motivation

Helping is motivated by self-interest or personal benefit

examples: helping to gain praise, avoiding guilt, improving mood, expecting rewards or reciprocity

Social Exchange Theory

Helping behavior is motivated by a cost-benefit analysis. People help when the perceived rewards outweigh the costs.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Empathy can create truly altruistic helping

kin selection

to help genetic relatives because helping them increases the survival of shared genes

ex; risking your safety to save a sibling or child

Reciprocal Altruism

helping others with the expectation that they may help you in the future

Norm of Reciprocity

the expectation that people should help those who have helped them

Social Responsibility Norm

people should help those who are dependent on us or unable to help themselves.

ex; helping children; helping elderly individuals

Social Justice Norm

the belief that people should receive outcomes they deserve and that fairness matters

“Minding Your Own Business” Norm

Norm suggests people should avoid interfering in others’ personal affairs

This can reduce helping because individuals fear:

• embarrassment

• offending someone

• misinterpreting the situation

How does guilt affect helping behavior?

the feeling of guilt often increases helping

How does positive mood affect helping?

People in a good mood are often more likely to help others.

(feel-good, do-good effect)

How does negative mood affect helping?

Being in a negative mood can sometimes increase helping if helping may improve the person’s mood

age difference in helping

research generally finds that helping behavior tends to increase with age in some areas because older adults may

Who are people more likely to help?

People are more likely to help others who are similar to themselves

Who do we help? Gender Differences

• Men are more likely to engage in heroic or physically risky helping (such as emergency rescues).

• Women are more likely to provide long-term caregiving and emotional support.

How can we increase helping?

1. Reduce the ambiguity of the need for help

2. Enhance feelings of personal responsibility

3. Teach norms supporting helpful behavior

4. And SLOW DOWN

Stereotype (cognitive)

a generalization about the "typical" characteristics of members of a particular group

prejudice (feeling)

an negative attitude/feeling/judgment toward an individual that is based solely on their membership in a certain group

ex; disliking someone because of their race, religion, or gender

Discrimination (behavior)

unfair behavior or actions directed toward people because of their group membership

ex; refusing to hire someone because of their ethnicity

numerical majority

the group with the largest number of people in a population

power majority

the group with the greatest social, political, or economic power, regardless of number

individual discrimination

Discrimination carried out by one person toward another.

ex; manager refusing to hire someone based on prejudice

institutional discrimination

Discrimination built into social institutions, policies, or systems that disadvantage certain groups.

ex; unequal school funding, discriminatory housing policies, biased criminal justice practices

blatant racism

Open, direct, and obvious racist beliefs or actions.

Examples:

• racial slurs

• openly supporting segregation

latent racism

more complex, indirect, hidden, or subtle forms of racism

Examples:

• avoiding interaction with certain groups

• supporting policies that disadvantage groups while claiming neutrality

privilege

unearned advantages, benefits, or opportunities that people receive because of their membership in a particular social group.

Examples:

• White privilege

• Male privilege

• Heterosexual privilege

sex

refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women (chromosomes)

gender

refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women

gender stereotypes

generalized beliefs about how men and women are “supposed” to behave

Masculine Stereotype

– Assertive

– Dominant

– Aggressive

– Competitive

– Analytical: scientifically minded

– Problem solvers

– Athletic

– Spatially oriented

Feminine Stereotype

– Emotional

– Tender

– Compassionate

– Understanding

– Kind

– Helpful

–Talkative

Who subscribes to and who suffers because of stereotypes?

BOTH men and Women

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A test measuring automatic unconscious associations using reaction times.

Example:

• pairing “White faces + good words”

• pairing “Black faces + good words”

IAT Research Findings

found that many people in the United States—both White and non-White participants—show an automatic preference for White faces over Black faces at an implicit level, even when they consciously reject prejudice.

socialization

the process through which people learn cultural norms, beliefs, values, and behaviors

social learning

We learn by watching others

Steps of Social Learning

1. Observe Model

2. Imitate Model

3. Reinforcement

4. Learned behavior will be repeated for future reinforcement

subtyping

Creating exceptions to stereotypes without changing the stereotype

Example: saying “She’s different from most women” instead of changing the stereotype about women.

out-group homogeneity effect

Seeing members of other groups as more similar than they really are

“they are all alike”

Dutton & Aron Study (“Bridge Study”)

Research by Donald Dutton and Arthur Aron studied how physiological arousal affects attraction.

Study

Men crossed either:

• a scary, high suspension bridge

• a stable, safe bridge

After crossing, they met an attractive female researcher.

Findings

Men who crossed the scary bridge were more likely to:

• contact the researcher later

• report attraction

Conclusion

This demonstrated misattribution of arousal:
people may mistakenly interpret physical arousal (fear) as romantic attraction.

Darley & Batson Study (“Good Samaritan Study”)

Research by John Darley and Daniel Batson examined situational influences on helping.

Study

Seminary students walked to give a talk, sometimes about the Good Samaritan parable.

Researchers manipulated whether participants believed they were:

• late

• on time

• early

On the way, participants encountered a person apparently in distress.

Findings

Students who were rushed were much less likely to help.

Conclusion

Situational factors (like time pressure) strongly influence helping behavior, sometimes more than personal beliefs or values.

What did the Dutton & Aron bridge study demonstrate?

People can misattribute physiological arousal to attraction.

What did the Darley & Batson Good Samaritan study show?

People in a hurry are less likely to help others.

stereotype threat

fear or anxiety people experience when they are at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about a group they belong to

ex; If women are reminded of the stereotype that “women are worse at math” before taking a math test, they may perform worse because of stress and pressure caused by the stereotype—not because of actual ability differences.

What did Steele & Aronson’s stereotype threat research find?

Black students performed worse on tests described as measuring intelligence, but equally well when tests were described as non-diagnostic.