Topic 17: Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945

Paper 3

Jim Crow laws

State and local statues that were enacted in the Southern between the late 19th century and 1965 that enforced strict racial segregation and disenfranchised Black citizens. Based on the “separate but equal” doctrine, it created separation in all public facilities, incl. schools, transportation, and restrooms.  

Ku Klux Klan

An American supremacist hate group founded in 1865. It used terrorism, violence, and intimidation incl. murders and cross-burnings to target Black people, Jews, Catholics, and immigrants, siming to uphold white supremacy and restrict civil rights.  

Brown v. Board of Education (and Brown II)

in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously (9-0) that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, declaring "separate but equal” inherently unequal. THe decision violated the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

Massive Resistance

a coordinated strategy launched in 1956 by Southern white politicians and citizens to obstruct the desegregation of public schools following the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. It involved passing state laws to close public schools and funding private segregation academies. 

Montgomery Bus Boycott

In 1955-56, nonviolent protest against segregated public transit, triggered by Rosa Parks’ arrest. Led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr., the Black community carpooked or walked, resulting in a Supreme Court ruling that desegregated public buses.

Freedom Rides

In 1961, interracial civil rights protests where activists rode buses into the segregated Southern U.S. to challenge non-enforcement of Supreme Court rulings banning segregation in public transportation. 

Freedom Summer

 In 1964, a pivotal voter registration drive aimed at increasing Black voter registration in Mississippi, where systemic racism had disenfranchised Black residents. 

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

a protest against the war in Vietnam, 1965. Protestors marched in circles on the sidewalk in front of the White House, then marched to the Washington Monument to hear speakers call for a ceasefire and an end to the war. 

Selma March

Aimed to march from Selma to Montgomery to demand voting rights. 

Civil Rights Act of 1964

signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson officially ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin. 

Voting Rights Act of 1965

signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, a landmark of federal legislation designed to enforce the 15th Amendment, outlawing discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes. To eliminate voter suppression and ensure the right to vote for all citizens, regardless of race or color.

NAACP

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909. The nation’s oldest and largest civil rights organization, dedicated to achieving political, educational, social,  and economic equality. It advocates, litigates, and lobbies for politics that end racial discrimination and protect Black rights in the US. 

SCLC

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, founded in 1957.  A pivotal civil rights organization that utilized nonviolent and direct action, such as boycotts, marches, and protests to challenge segregation and fight for voting rights across the South. 

SNCC

The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, a pivotal 1960s civil rights organization formed in 1960 to coordinate student-led grassroots nonviolent direct action. In sit-ins, Freedom Rides, March on Washington, and Freedom Summer, pushing for voting rights and racial equality. 

CORE

The Congress of Racial Equality, in 1942. A pivotal, Big Four civil rights organization that used nonviolent direct action, such as sit-ins and Freedom Rides to challenge segregation. Worked closely with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. 

Nation of Islam

a prominent Black nationalist organization during the era that advocated for racial reparation, self-defense, and economic independence. Led by Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X. Taught that Black people were the original people of the world, advocated for a separate nation for Black Americans, and rejected integration.

Black Panthers

Founded in 1966, a revolutionary organization aimed at protecting Black neighborhoods from police brutality and promoting socialist, Black Power ideologies. 

Black Power

Advocating for racial pride, self-determination, and economic independence rather than just integration. Black power emphasized black self-reliance and self-determination more than integration.

Martin Luther King, Jr.

An American civil rights activist who was a prominent leader of the civil rights movement from 1955 until his assassination in 1968. He was involved in nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, achieving landmark legislation against racial segregation, incld. the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965. 

Malcolm X

An African American revolutionary and Black nationalist leader who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement until his assassination in 1965. Known for his advocacy for Black empowerment and human rights. He urged Black Americans to protect themselves from white aggression “by means necessary”, directly challenging the mainstream nonviolent civil rights movement. 

JFK

Approach to civil rights was cautious, a moral call for equality. Fearing the loss of Southern support, He at first preferred executive actions over new legislation. Later, he used executive actions, including appointing African Americans to high positions, protecting protesters with federal marshals, and initiating the legislative puch that became the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 

LBJ

By using his legislative mastery as president to puch through landmark legislation.  He was instrumental in passing the most significant civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. His actions dismantled legal segregation, protected voting rights, and established key protections against discrimination.

Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique

A book, which is credited with sparking second-wave feminism by identifying “the problem that has no name”-the deep, unspoken dissatisfaction of mid-century American women confined to domestic roles. The book’s massive success promoted widespread public activism for gender equality, with Friedan later co-founding the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966.

Shirley Chisholm

A trailblazing feminist and politician, known for her “unbought and unbossed” philosophy, who championed Black feminist power politics by intersecting race and gender equality. Co-founded the National Women’s Political Causus in 1971 to increase women’s participation in politics. Actively worked to protect abortion access, including serving as a founding signatory of African American Women for Reproductive Freedom. Championed the Equal Rights Amendment and pushed for legislation benefiting women, such as extending minimum wage protections to domestic workers. The first Black woman elected to Congress (1968). 

Gloria Steinum

A renowned American journalist, activist, and key leader of the late-1960s/70s second-wave feminist movements. She co-founded Ms. magazine and the Women’s Action Alliance, focusing on reproductive rights, workplace equality, and increasing women’s political participation. 

Phyllis Schlafly

A prominent conservative activist who led a powerful countermovement against second-wave feminism and the Equal Rights Amendment in the 1970s. Argued it would destroy “traditional womanhood” and threaten privileges like alimony or child custody. She organized STOP ERA, arguing the amendment would ruin traditional family structures and subject women to the military draft.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

a proposed constitutional amendment designed to guarantee legal gender equality, serving as a significant factor of the feminist movement since 1923. While gaining significant momentum through 1970s second-wave feminism, it has faced long ratification delays and ongoing legal challenges regarding its status. 

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others, is the largest grassroots feminist organization in the U.S., having hundreds of thousands of members across all 50 states. Promotes feminist ideals, aims to eliminate discrimination and achieves equality through action on reproductive rights, economic justice, and ending violence against women. 

Women’s Liberation

a radical, transformative branch of second-wave feminism in the 1960s-70s that aimed to end sexism by overturning patriarchal social, economic, and cultural structures. Thinks that provate struggles, including childcare, domestic chores, and sexual harassment, were actually political issues requiring collective action. Unlike the more formal NOW, it often operated without leaders, using collectives to avoid traditional power structures.

Cesar Chavez

a pivotal Mexican American labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) with Dolores Huerta in 1962. He championed the Chicano movement by employing nonviolent tactics such as strikes, boycotts, and fasts to secure higher wages and better conditions for farmworkers. 

Dolores Huerta

A pivotal leader in the movement. She organized key strikes, brokered landmark contracts, and coined the rallying cry. Advocacy for farmworker rights, women’s rights, and Latina political representation. She secured favorable contracts with grape companies and spearheaded the 1960s nationwide table grape boycotts, which forced growers to accept union contracts. “Si, se pede! (Yes, we can)” 

United Farm Workers’ Union

Founded in 1962, which became a cornerstone of the movement. By using nonviolent protests, strikes, and national boycotts, the UFW fought for better wages and labor conditions for Mexican and Filipino farmworkers, transforming labor organizing into a broader struggle for dignity, social justice, and political empowerment. Secured improved wages, union contracts, and better working conditions.