Americas Quiz

Montezuma II

• Last emperor of the Aztec Empire

• Ruled from 1502-1520

• Was elected by a council of noble elders

• Known for his piety, intellect and good military strategy

• Pushed the Aztec to its peak

• Demanded heavy tributes in food, metals and sacrifices from conquered tribes→ gained resentment from those tribes

• Tried to increase territory and population of empire→ flourishing

• Gained resentment→ easier for Hernan Cortes to form alliances with discontent tribes to take over Aztec empire

• Montazuma initially treated Cortes and Spanish with respect

• Diplomacy= backfired→ taken captive and died

• Aztec Empire became under Spanish authority

Aztec City-States

• Located in Mesoamerica

• Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan

• City-states in Mesopotamia

• Formed the triple alliance to conquer Azcapotzalco

• Founded Aztec empire this way

• Tenochtitlan was the capital city (Island on the lake Texcoco)

• City-state structure meant self-sufficiency but the Aztec states worked together to benefit each other

• Used to be individual city-states but the Aztec Empire was a tributary empire

• Allowed Hernando Cortes to take advantage of conflicts between separate states by turning them all against each other to take control of all

• Recruited approx. 100,000 indigenous soldiers to take down the Aztecs by convincing them to ally with him for their hatred of the Aztecs

• Were similar to Greek city-states like Athens and Sparta

• The unification of the city-states increased interaction and allowed trade to occur

Pachacuti

• The ninth leader of the Kingdom of Cusco

• Wanted to expand Cusco via military conquests

• United different people from South America/ created centralized government

• Gained more power and control by expanding Cusco into the Inca empire

• Known as the “Inca” or ruler of his people

• Mythical hero to modern day Peruvians

• Led a direct response to the Chanka rather than fleeing→dedication

• Laid a foundation for the Inca Empire

• Aggressive in military conquests

Incan Unity (Finish this later)

• Had a steady food/water supply via terraces→ surplus and increased population

• People provided for each other and were unified

• Allowed other religions to be practiced→ people came to empire because of the large food supply and freedom of religion

• Quipus/ messages kept people in contact/ helped record data and history

• Used as date trackers

• Build public buildings to unify their empire/ separate people into classes 

• Identified Inca territory

• United under Quechua (language) →  communication in a spoken manner was easier

• Mita system created a union between the Inca government and people

• Integrated other tribes efficiently 

• Resettled loyal people into new conquered areas to prevent rebellion and unify new territory

State Controlled Economy

Aztecs: 

• Had a tributary empire that imposed taxes on city-states

• Provided for Tenochtitlan and central government

• Taxed goods as tribute during trade 

• Officials and commissioners would oversee goods, prices and quality control in markets

• Pochteca, or elite merchants would operate in guild-like systems

• Served as diplomats and spies

• Controlled the agricultural land and processes

Inca:

• Economy of force: negotiated to ask kings to give up power for food supplies

• Used military to gain power but was inefficient just like economy of force

• Bribes were used too

• Communities traded with others for materials that they lacked

• Inca traded WITHIN the empire

• A commonwealth: benefitted those in need

• The Mita system also contributed to providing for the empire

• Trade was focused on providing rather than selling

• Surplus of food was stored in storehouses and saved for famine or natural disasters

• Surplus was given to people who did their Mita system labor

• Land was leased to families→ state takes harvest for distribution

• Centralized government= centralized benefit or commonwealth

Cuzco

• The political and religious capital of Inca

• Where Pachacuti initiated his expansion of territory

• The Kingdom of Cuzco was one of the kingdoms in South America

• United into the Inca Empire after it won many battles and gained new territory

• Temple of Inti

• Sapa-Inca lived there

Atahualpa

• Last Incan emperor 

• Won a civil war against his brother Huascar

• After father’s death: empire was split up

• Both brothers were fighting for power

• Controlled northern regions of Quito while his brother controlled the south

• Had his brother captured after the civil war and executed by Francisco Pizarro

• Was captured by the Spanish himself

• Agreed to convert to Christianity to avoid being burned at the stake

• Tried for murdering Huascar

• Strangled to death in 1533

Quetzalcoatl

• Deity of the Aztec religion

• Descendants had the divine right to rule

• Aztecs gained power by marrying Toltec princesses

• “Feathered Serpent" deity

• A lot of Mesoamerican cultures had a version

• Patron of priests

• Gave birth to humanity with ancient bones and his own blood

• Rejected human sacrifice

• Butterfly/snakes/birds instead of self-sacrifice (self-piercing)

• Offered the 3 sacred creatures to G-d instead of sacrifice of himself (oneself)

Huitzilopochtli

• Supreme patron God of the Aztecs

• Deity of the sun, warfare and human sacrifice

• Represented as a blue-green hummingbird

• Aztecs believed that people are reincarnated as hummingbirds who join Huitzilopochtli 

• Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan is dedicated to Huitzilopochtli

• Aztecs used human sacrifice to nourish Huitzilopochtil (human blood+hearts)

• Human sacrifice to defeat the forces of darkness/ evil/ end of the world

• Aztec soldiers served him

Human Sacrifice

• Religious ritual practiced by the Aztecs

• Priests offered human hearts and blood to Huitzilopochtli 

• Defeated forces of darkness and evil

• Prevented the end of the world

• Considered “repayment” or “debt” to the deities

• Used obsidian blades to slice victim open

• Most victims were war prisoners who were captured during battle

• Also encouraged other city-states to provide human sacrifice victims as a form of tribute

Inti

• The sun God of the Incas

• Sapa Inca (divine, political and economic leader) is the believed descendant of Inti

• Most powerful God in the sky

• Has a temple dedicated to him in Cuzco

• His presence was intertwined with political, social, religious and economic organization in the Inca Empire

• Inca used Inti to project their vision of an Empire

Virachocha (Deity)

• Supreme creator of deity in Inca mythology

• Created the universe, sun and moon according to the Inca

• Visualized carrying lightning bolts and a staff

• Credited with shaping the universe 

Virachocha (Ruler)

• Father of Pachacuti

• Fled the empire during a war with the Chanca

• Pachacuti took over and defeated the Chanca→ gained approval from Inca and expanded its territory

Temple of the Sun (Aztecs)

Pyramid of the Sun

• Located in Teotihuacan

• Created before the arrival of the Aztecs

• Made of 5-stepped terraces

• Represented the mythical birthplace of the sun and universe

• Aztecs pushed people down the steps as sacrificial rituals

Templo Major

• Was the main temple of Tenochtitlan

• 113 steps and led to twin temples to honor the G-ds of rain and war

• Rebuilt 7 times

• Honored the G-d of the sun: Huitzilopochtil

• Made from lightweight volcanic stone to prevent sinking

• Plaster was used to stabilize the line of the temple

• Aztecs reenacted killings on top of the pyramids and push the carcases down

• Main venue for religious and political ceremonies

Temple of Sun (Inca)

Coricancha

• Located in Cusco 

• Most sacred site of the Inca empire

• Dedicated to Inti, the sun G-d

• Made from mortarless stone blocks

• Was earthquake resistant and outlasted the Spanish colonial structures built on top

Temple of the Sun Machu Picchu

• It was used as an observatory by priests and Inca elite to track the sun and mark December solstice

• Located in the Machu Picchu archaeological site

• Smaller than the one in Cusco

• Built out of  polished granite and natural rock

Obsidian

• Natural glass formed by volcanic rock

• Best option for weapons and sharp tools since metal working was rare

• Tenochtitlan was located in the center of obsidian trade→ higher inventory

• Very valuable and high-demand commodity→ made Aztec Empire wealthy

• Tenochtitlan became center of trade because of obsidian

• Obsidian tools were the most effective for battle/warfare

• Advantage in warfare

• Used for human sacrifice

Chinampas

• Floating islands providing land to farm on

• Artificial and were built with a soil and straw base

• Floated on Lake Texcoco in the Aztec Empire

• Took men 4-6 days to build them 

• Irrigated and were made of soil→ helped crops grow

• Allowed the Aztec to have more farming land

• Provided vital food surplus that allowed Aztecs to build a massive urban metropolis

Tenochtitlan

• The capital of the Aztec Empire

• Located on an Island on Lake Texcoco

• Triple alliance: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan

• Was on the center of the obsidian trade→ very rich and made a lot of profit

• Templo Mayor in the center which worships Huitzilopochtil

• Was a tributary city-state: city-states paid tribute to the central government

• Causeways connected Tenochtitlan with the mainland to prevent isolation

• Aztecs built bridges→ increased interaction/ prevented isolation

• Used pyres and drove them into ground/ filled up ground with volcanic rock for a stable foundation→ helped with swampy ground

• Gained water from the mainland through aqueducts

• Started battles with other city-states (Tepanecs) to get access to water for the whole empire

• One channel was cleaned the other maintained the flow of water

• Chinampas were used to increase farming land

• Used a dike/wooden wall to maintain water levels/ prevent flooding

• Protected water supply/ didn’t mix salt and freshwater

• Tenochtitlan was an urban and complex city in Aztec civilization

Quipu

• Used in the Inca empire

• Sophisticated recording/ writing  systems fashioned from knotted cords or camelid

• Out of llama or alpaca fiber

• Were messages that were sent by Chasquis for communication

• Like letters/messages

• Used to track calendar dates and record historical narrative/statistics

• String colors organized different types of data

• Allowed people in the Inca to communicate with one another→ unified empire

• Helped historians track Inca history

• Central government in Cuzco used census via quipus to collect data→ managed ayllu population/ resources

Road Systems (Inca)

• Expanded the Wari road systems because if their geography

• Hard to travel within the empire→ created a road system to ensure easy transportation/communication

• Created bridges connecting sides of mainland= easier than going down the mountain

• Faster transport

• Had fast messengers run across the roads to deliver messages (Chasquis)

• Allowed trade to happen

Road Systems (Aztecs)

• Created bridges and roads which connected Tenichtitlan (Island on Lake Tecoco) to the mainland

• Increased interaction and created more connectivity with other city-states

• Trade occurred along these roads and there were trade systems connecting the Aztecs with parts of South USA

• Prevented isolation from other city-states

• Were able to unify independent city-states into one empire

• Turquoise roads (trade system/ roads)

• Causeaways supplied Tenochtitlan

• Constructed superhighways so messages and goods could be sent efficiently using a  postal-service system

Triple Alliance

• Military alliance between the Aztec City-States Texcoco, Tenochtitlan and Tlacopan

• Wanted to take control of Azcapotzalco, which was in the middle of a Civil War

• Fought over control against other city-states

• Gained control and expanded themselves into the Aztec empire

• Tenochtitlan was the capital

• Contextualized the Aztec Empire and the origin of the Mexican people

• How the Aztec Empire gained control in the Lake Texcoco region

• Became a tributary empire→ city states paid taxes to Tenochtitlan for benefitting the empire’s entirety

• Conquered much of the Mesoamerican region

Ideology of Conquest (Aztecs) (Finish later)

• Used weapons like throwing stones, darts, spears, wooden clubs and obsidian blades

• Weapons were used to attack their enemies

• Carried shields to protect themselves

• Women were considered warriors during childbirth (thought they were held captive)

• Women played minor roles in testing underqualified warriors

• 2 military orders of prestige: Jaguars and Eagles → served Huitzilopochtil

• Acknowledged for bravery and wore ceremonial clothing for status

• Imprison enemies rather than kill them and utilize them for labor/ human sacrifice

• Captives gave capturer warrior a status

• Formed alliances with other city states to gain power: Triple Alliance

• Taxed conquered people more than others/ let them keep existing but gave limits

Ideology of Conquest (Inca) (Finish later)

• Believed the Sun chose them to bring civilization into a chaotic world

• First offered gifts, roads and protection to neighboring groups in they surrendered

• If a tribe refused, the Inca army cut off their food/ water supply

• Conquered people gave Inca labor and royalty for food in return

• Did not destroy local culture and sent leaders’ children to capital and teach them how to be Inca and sent them back→ spread influence

• Forced relocation of loyal citizens to areas that are prone to rebellions→ prevent rebellions

• Used conquest to expand land

Mita system

• Inca taxation system

• Ensured that the empire is well built and staffed

• Flourishing economy

• People paid with labor rather than with money

• Dedicated a certain percentage of labor to the government

• People were moved around by the government based on the type of labor

• People received care from the government when they were ill 

• People also had access to food surplus in government during famine or food shortages

• Effective way of the government having direct control

• Machu Picchu was built because of the Mita system

• Main goal was to provide for government and others: commonwealth

• Benefitted everybody rather than just the government

• Were given shelter

Calpulli

• Local organizations reporting to the local government

• Public works and farming

• Groups of integrated families that acted like a neighborhood

• Had their own schools in which members (boys+ girls) would attend them

• Created projects

• Worked for the state to provide it with goods

• Collectively held land and distributed to families for farming

• Responsible for tribute to be paid to the central Aztec government

• School for each ward, temple and deity.

• Led by elected or hereditary leaders who governed aside with nobles

Allyu

• Fundamental socio-economic organization system in the Inca Empire

• Self-sustaining kin based community

• Individuals didn’t own property: Ayllu collectively owned land and plots’

• Labor exchange between families and community labor: benefitted the community rather than individuals

• Members of Ayllu were required to fulfill Mita system labor

• Constructed roads, buildings, served in army or worked on farms

• Religious units: worshipped together

• People born in Ayllu remained members for life

• Central government in Cuzco used census via quipus to collect data→ managed ayllu population/ resources

Quechua

• The spoken language of the Inca Empire

• Used quipus since it wasn’t written

• Created a cultural foundation and united the Inca under a language→ more communication