WESTERN THOUGHTS

Western Thoughts

Characterized by a rigorous, analytic approach focusing on rational, empirical, and component-based analysis.

Individualism

Values independency, self-sufficiency, and personal achievement, viewing the individual as a "self-made man."

Dualism

The belief that the mind and body are distinct entities and separate entities with different properties and purposes. There is an existence of both physical and non-physical substances.

Logical, Scientific, and Rational

The self's ability to analyze and act on reason, leading to systematic understanding of the world. allows the self to be systematic and have a universal understanding in the physical world, human behavior, consciousness, and ethics.

Being Ethical

Walking towards one’s goal without causing ill to others. It helps govern human behavior and decision making of good and bad, right and wrong, and moral and immoral.

Western Philosophy

Western philosophers focused on the real-life applications of their knowledge. (Hands-on Style)

Metaphysics

The study of existence, including descriptive and reversionary metaphysics.

Descriptive Metaphysics

Aristotle, Kant, and Strawson. Content to describe the actual structure of our thoughts about the world. Aims to describe the most general features of our conceptual scheme, that is, to describe reality as it manifests itself to the human understanding. Conceptual analysis is its main method.

Reversionary Metaphysics

Descartes, Leibniz, and Berkeley. Concerned with producing a better structure. Attempts to revise our ordinary way of thinking and our ordinary conceptual scheme in order to provide an intellectually and morally preferred picture of the world. Reversionary metaphysicians generally like to establish a well-organized system beyond the world of experience.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge. Inquiry into the nature, origin, conditions, and limits of knowledge. Scientific and logical understanding of the world got its priority.

Ethics

The study of action, emphasizing virtues and the pursuit of Eudaimonia for Plato and Aristotle.

Plato’s Ethics

• In Republic, he has mentioned ethics which are based on Eudaimonia. 

• The four virtues are: Wisdom, Temperance, Courage, and Justice. The purpose of his ethics was to help people achieve Eudaimonia which is also known as fulfillment or well-being.

• Purpose of his ethics was to help people achieve Eudaimonia which is also known as fulfillment or well-being.

Aristotle’s Ethics

• In Nicomachean Ethics, one of the biggest questions stands as ‘What is Good’? 

• The good for humanity is to attain virtue, to become a virtuous person. 

• Moral Virtues: Courage, Temperance, Liberality, Magnificence, Magnanimity, Ambition, Truthfulness, Wittiness, Righteous, Modesty, Friendliness 

• He said ‘you become what you repeatedly do’, so in order to lead a happy life a person should as well as live their life with virtue.

Politics

• The study of force, Evolved from ancient Greco-Roman ideas to liberal democracy and human rights ideas prevalent today. 

• Key values: individual liberty, the rule of law, limited government, consent of the governed and democracy. 

• Laid the base of political systems in Western countries like the USA, European countries and other liberal democracies. 

• It values ideas like liberty, equality, property rights and representation which form the basis of the Western style of governance

Aesthetics

• The study of art, His views on aesthetics and teleology are most fully presented in his Critique of Judgment published in 1790. 

• An aesthetic judgment, in Kant’s usage, is a judgment which is based on feeling, and in particular on the feeling of pleasure or displeasure. 

judgments of the agreeable, judgments of the beauty/taste, judgments of the sublime

Three kinds of Aesthetic Judgment

Logic, Reasoning, and Categorization

Western philosophers break down ideas into parts for analysis rather than viewing them as wholes.

Group Identity 

The self finds meaning in its connection with others and the world.

Unity

Life’s purpose is to achieve cosmological unity and harmony with the universe.

Cycle of Life

Life is circular, and recurrence with the environment is key

Virtue and Selflessness

A selfless life, satisfied with what one has, is virtuous

Spiritual

The journey is more about spiritual growth than material success

Holistic Thinking

Focuses on the big picture, generalizing ideas to reflect universal truths

Confucius (Kong Fuzi)

Founder of Confucianism

Social Harmony and Ethical Conduct

Goal of Confucianism

Code of Ethical Conduct

Focuses on harmonious social relationships and proper behavior

Five Relationships

Emphasizes social harmony through ethical behavior and proper conduct in relationships such as ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend.

Interwoven Identity

Self-concept is tied to community identity and shared successes or failures

Self-Cultivation

The goal is to develop into a virtuous, noble person (chun tzu).

Subdued Self

Personal desires are suppressed for the collective good, maintaining societal order.

Laozi (Lao Tzu)

Founder of Taoism

Harmony with Tao or “The Way”

Goal of Taoism

Tao Te Ching

Laozi authored ____ emphasizing harmony with the tao and simplicity of life.

The Way and effortless action or non-action

Living in accordance with the natural flow of life (Tao - “_____”), embracing spontaneity (Wuwei - “_______”) and simplicity

Fluid Perspective

Views the world in a free flowing, paradoxical way

Simplicity

Rejects Confucian hierarchy, seeking a simple, natural lifestyle.

Selflessness

The self is part of the universe; balance with nature and society is key, focusing on equality and harmony

Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

Founder of Buddhism

Nirvana

Goal of Buddhism that signifies the complete freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, and the end of suffering, desire, and attachment.

Enlightenment (Bodhi)

Refers to the awakening or realization of reality's true nature, such as the source of suffering. It is also the process that leads to nirvana

Source of Suffering

The self is the cause of all suffering, and liberation comes from renouncing it.

Illusion of Self

The self is an illusion, created by ignorance and attachment

Eastern Religion

Includes Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism, and Islam.

Western Religion

Common religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Eastern Liberty

People prefer to approach difficult situations by using good manners and tact, not aggression

Western Liberty

More liberal. More open and blunt. (e.g., topics like sex or birth of a child are openly discussed). More open to expressing their feelings. If they are angry, they vent it out.

Eastern Decision-Making

Prioritizes family and elder guidance in important choices.

Western Decision-Making

More flexible and free to make decisions on his own.

Eastern Arrange Marriage

Common. Normally arranged by the parents of the couple or other elders. They believe in the concept that love comes after marriage.

Western Arrange Marriage

Not common, with love seen as the basis for marriage.

Eastern Culture Vantage Point

Hierarchy: Seems Oppressive (Relationship)

Event-Focus: Seems Inconsiderate (Time)

Harmony: Seems Dishonest (Speech)

Patronage: Seems Corrupt (Money)

Hospitality: Seems Orientation (Food)

Shame-Based: Seems Lawless (Ethics)

Western Culture Vantage Point

Equality: Seems Disrespectful (Relationship)

Task-Focus: Seems Unkind (Time)

Honesty: Seems Rude (Speech)

Independence: Seems Stingy (Money)

Efficiency: Seems Neglectful (Food)

Guilt-Based: Seems Shameless (Ethics)

collectivism and harmony, oneself

Eastern thought focuses on _____ and _____, while Western thought emphasizes _____ and personal needs