Psych Final Exam 4

Chapters 14, 15, and 17

Compare children in heterosexual families vs those of gay/lesbian parents:

Children’s development depends on quality of parenting and environment, not whether parents are heterosexual or LGBTQ.

Research shows no significant differences in:

• Emotional development

• Social functioning

• Cognitive/academic outcomes

Children of gay/lesbian parents are just as well-adjusted as those of heterosexual parents.

The most important factor is:

• Parenting quality (warmth, consistency, support)

Any differences that appear are usually due to:

• Stigma, discrimination, or social stress, not the parents’ sexual orientation

LGBTQ and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems:

LGBTQ development is strongly influenced by levels of acceptance or discrimination across all systems, not just the individual. Supportive environments at multiple levels lead to the best outcomes.

Chronosystem: sociohistorical circumstances

(Changes over time)

Divorced parents, stepparent families, LGBTQ families, multiethnic families.

Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem:

Microsystem (immediate environment): Where the individual lives.

Mesosystem (connections): Links between the microsystems.

Exosystem (indirect environment): Influences from another setting that the person does not experience directly.

Macrosystem (social & cultural values): The culture where the person lives.

Chronosystem (changes over time): Divorced parents, stepparent families, LGBTQ families, and multiethnic families.

Grandparents as caregivers for grandchildren:

They are at higher risk for:

• Health problems

• Depression

• Stress

Grandchildren raised by grandparents may have:

• More mental/behavioral problems

• Lower educational outcomes

Grandparents can provide care and stability, but both they and grandchildren may face added challenges and stress.

Types of Parenting Styles:

Authoritative

Authoritarian

Permissive

Neglectful (uninvolved)

1st Marriage in the US: (Statistics and related information)

About 40%-50% of 1st marriages end in divorce.

People are marrying later than in the past.

In 2022, almost 50% of people 15 years old and older in the U.S were married. This was down from 72% in 1960.

Marriage rates vary by ethnicity in the U.S:

Most Marriages → Asian American

Least Marriages → Black American

Largest % of intermarriage occurs between Blacks and Whites.

Cohabitation in older adults:

Cohabitating among older couples is more about companionship than love.

Baumrind’s parenting styles:

Authoritarian parenting: Strict, cold

• Strict, controlling, little communication

• Uses punishment (e.g., spanking)

• Children: unhappy, anxious, poor communication, boys more aggressive

Authoritative parenting: Firm, warm (best)

• Warm, supportive, with clear rules

• Encourages discussion

• Children: confident, self-controlled, independent, do well socially and academically

Neglectful (uninvolved) parenting: Absent, (worst)

• Low involvement, little guidance

• Children: low self-esteem, poor self-control, immature, behavior problems

Indulgent (permissive) parenting: Lenient, spoiling

• Very few rules, children do what they want

• Children: lack self-control, egocentric, struggle with peers, expect their way

Authoritative parenting leads to the best outcomes; neglectful the worst.

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Memory Trick:

Memory Trick:

Authoritarian= Angry, harsh

Authoritative= Awesome balance

Neglectful= No care

Indulgent= “I do what I want”

Be familiar with divorce at different age groups:

Young children (early childhood)

• Confused, fearful, may think they caused the divorce

• Separation anxiety

School-age children

• May blame themselves

• Sadness, anger, possible school problems

Adolescents

• Anger, resentment

• May engage in risk-taking behaviors

• Possible problems with relationships and trust

Age matters, but the biggest factor is: Level of parental conflict and Quality of parenting after divorce.

Divorce:

Black Americans more likely to be divorced in their lifetime, followed by Latinos, Whites then Asian Americans.

Children react differently by age, but low conflict and supportive parenting lead to better adjustment.

Know family processes after divorce:

Key Factors that Affect Child Adjustment:

• Level of parental conflict

• Quality of parenting

• Economic stability

• Co-parenting cooperation

Children do better when:

• Parents remain supportive and consistent

• Conflict is minimized

Epigenetic View of Development:

Emphasizes that development reflects ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment.

Social Media & Achievement in Middle & High School Students:

Heavy use of social media is associated with lower psychological well-being.

Moderate use: can support learning and connection

Excessive use:

• Lower academic performance

• Distraction and less sleep

Key factor= how much and how it’s used

Cummings’ Emotional Security Theory:

Children need to feel emotionally secure in their family

Exposure to parental conflict threatens this security

Results:

• Anxiety

• Behavioral problems

Children may:

• Try to intervene

• Withdraw

Main idea: emotional security predicts adjustment

Know about parents having children at various ages:

20s (advantages)

• More energy

• Fewer pregnancy risks

• Fewer expectations for child

30s (advantages)

• More maturity

• Better finances/career stability

• More prepared for parenting

Having kids later brings more resources, earlier brings more energy, and good monitoring + support = better teen outcomes.

Age of “internet users”:

Most children become internet users by elementary school.

Teens are the most active users.

Understand what children get from their peers:

Children get from peers:

• Social comparison and feedback

• Emotional support or rejection

• Learning of behaviors (positive or negative)

• Opportunities to develop self-control and social skills

Peers help children learn who they are, how they behave, and how they fit in socially.

Different forms of Child Maltreatment:

Physical abuse = hitting, harm

Emotional abuse = insults, rejection

Neglect = lack of care (food, safety)

Sexual abuse = inappropriate sexual contact

Various Types of Play:

Sensorimotor play = using senses/movement; exploring cause and effect

Practice play = repeating actions to learn skills (running, throwing, sports)

Pretense/Symbolic play = pretend play; using objects as symbols (peaks preschool age)

Social play = playing with others; interaction, turn-taking, games

Constructive play = building/creating something (combines skills + imagination)

Types of Play (Simplified):

Sensorimotor = sense & explore

Practice = repeat & learn

Pretend = imagine

Social = play together

Constructive = build/create

Leisure Time in Adolescents:

US adolescents spend almost 6 hours a day on leisure activities.

About ½ is screen time (social media, gaming, videos).

Remaining time is socializing (friends, activities, events).

Teens often spend more time on leisure than homework.

Boys: ~6 hours/day (more screen time + sports)

Girls: ~5 hours/day

Effect of Poverty and Long-Term Effects:

Effects of Poverty:

• Poverty causes high stress and less control over life

• Fewer job options, resources, and opportunities

• Leads to limited education and weaker decision-making

• Parents may feel less effective and more stressed

Long Term Effects:

• Higher risk of ongoing poverty across life

• More health and mental health problems

• Lower education and income in adulthood

• Poverty can continue across generations due to limited opportunities and inequality

Recommended Screen Time by Age Group:

WHO recommends: Ages 3-4 no more than 1 hour/day of screen time.

Too much screen time reduces:

• Physical activity

• Sleep quality

• Social interaction and play

• Academic performance

Young children should have very limited screen time (about 1 hour/day) because excess use harms development and health.

Social Media & Peer Relationships in Adolescents:

Can improve connection and support

Can also increase:

• comparison

• cyberbullying

• anxiety

What are some ways adolescents interact with peers:

Hanging out, texting, group activities

Romantic relationships

Online communication

Socioeconomic Status:

It refers to a grouping of people with similar occupational, educational and economic resources.

Based on:

• Income

• Education

• Occupation

Higher SES → more resources, better outcomes

When do adolescents conform with their peers:

Most likely in early adolescence

Happens when teens want:

• acceptance

• belonging

Adolescents are more likely to conform to peers when they are uncertain about their own social identity or in the presence of those, they perceive to have a higher status than them.

Racism & Ageism:

Racism = discrimination based on race

Ageism = discrimination based on age

Both affect opportunities and well-being.

Understand how groups interact:

CLIQUES – are small groups that range from 2 to 12 individuals. Averages 5 or 6 individuals. Often, they develop an in-group identity where they believe their clique is better than others.

In-groups = “us” group

Out-groups = “them” group

Can lead to bias or cooperation.

Understand poverty in women:

Feminization of Poverty: Refers to the fact that far more women than men live in poverty. Highest in never married women.

In 2020, 34 % of single-mother families lived in poverty. 5 times the rate for married-couple families.

What are the effects of vacation and leisure time:

Research has shown the importance of leisure for work,

and cognitive and health outcomes:

A positive effect on job satisfaction.

Those engaged in more leisure activity may live longer.

More leisure time meant less likely to be depressed.

Improves: mental health, family bonding, stress reduction.

What are functions of friendship:

Companionship: Friendship provides a familiar partner and playmate, someone who is willing to spend time with us and join in collaborative activities.

Stimulation: Friendship provides interesting information, excitement, and amusement.

Ego Support: Friendship provides the expectation of support, encouragement, and feedback, which helps us maintain an impression of ourselves as competent, attractive, and worthwhile individuals.

Social Comparison: Friendship provides information about where we stand vis-a-

Understand how children learn to play with each other:

Understand Social Relationships and Being Transgender:

John Coie’s Research about Aggressive Boys: