HWH Nelson Final Exam Semester 2

Capital

Goods that are used to further production, and reflect the wealth or financial strength of an individual or company

Urbanization

The process through which cities grow

Factory

Building or group of buildings where goods are manufactured or assembled chiefly by machine

Vertical integration

An expansion strategy where one company takes over one or more stages in the production or distribution of a product

Horizontal integration

A growth strategy of acquiring as many businesses in the same industry and integrating them into the same company

Monopoly

The exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service

Corporate trust

A set of companies that are managed by a small group, and control production and distribution of products/services

Capitalism definition

An economic system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state

Robber Barons

A person who has become rich through ruthless and unscrupulous business practices

Socialism definition

An economic and political system in which the means of production and distribution are owned or regulated by the public or government

Communism definition

An economic and political system in which all property is publicly owned, and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs

Bourgeoisie

The middle class

Labor union

An organized association of workers often in a trade or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interests

Suffrage

The right to vote

Captains of industry

Business leaders whose means of amassing a personal fortune contributed to society positively in some way

Law of self-interest

People work for their own good

Law of competition

Competition forces people to make a better product

Law of supply and demand

In a free market enough goods would be created to meet demand

Proletariat

The working class

Crop Rotation

The practice of growing a series of similar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons to restore plants nutrients and soil stability

What was the Second Agricultural Revolution

Period of rapid modernization and technological advancement in farming

Causes of the Second Agricultural Revolution

• New farming technologies

• New farming systems

• Columbian exchange

• Enclosure of land

Enclosure Acts

Series of British laws which enclosed open fields and common land, creating legal property rights to land that was previously considered common.

• Allowed for larger farms

• Increased the value of land

• Forced those left out to seek other employment

Mechanization of farming

New tools were invented and old ones perfected to improve the efficiency of farming

What country did both the Second Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions occur in

England

What advantages did England have as a country that allowed for the revolutions

• Bountiful natural resources

• Strong source of labor from growing populations and displaced farmers

• Wealthy country

First Phase of Industrialization

Transition to new manufacturing processes from 1760-1840

primarily in England

• Mechanization, interchangeable parts, steam engines, mass production

• Beginnings of urbanization

Second Phase of Industrialization

Rapid industrial development from 1870-1914

• Spreads to France, Italy, Germany, Russia, Japan, United States

• Widespread adoption of technological systems and rise of large-scale business

• New inventions

Industrial Revolution

The transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to 1840

New inventions that drove Industrial Revolution

• Steam engine

• New textiles machines

• Railroads

Processes that were apart of the Industrial Revolution

Urbanization: process of growth of cities

• New large machinery needed bigger buildings to fit into

Factory: building or group of buildings where goods are manufactured or assembled chiefly by machine

• Factory systems replaces previous methods of production

Industrial Revolution’s impact on society

• Brought great riches to the people who invested in it and the entrepreneurs, and it also provided jobs for displaced farmers

• Money held less value, and people needed to work twice as hard to make the same income they were making before

Conditions in cities (particularly in urban slums/tenements)

• Crowded factories

• Unsanitary living conditions

• Terrible and dangerous working conditions

• Overcrowded housing

• Unrelenting poverty

People’s responses to societal transformations

• People responded to it in mixed ways; most people were fine with it and used it as an opportunity to rise from rags to riches

• Others were not so happy and responded by protesting and calling for government reforms

What were social responses to industrialization

• Certain responses include the beginning of the making of Labor Unions to petition for better working conditions and higher wages

• Women organizing to petition for suffrage, the creation of tenements and their introduction to society, a decrease in poverty, speaking out about health of factory workers, pushing for inspections and protests

• Education reforms that forced children aged 5-10 to go to school and made school free

What inventions were created during the Second Phase of Industrialization

• Bessemer process allowed for the mass production of steel (Henry Bessemer)

• National railway networks

• Telegraph and telephones increase communications

• Introduction of the lightbulb and electricity

The rise of big business

Growth of companies led to a separation of ownership from management

• "Big Business"

• Owners become known as Industrialists

Difference between a Captain of Industry and a Robber Baron

• Captains of Industry: the business leaders whose means of amassing a personal fortune contributed positively to society in a way

• Robber Barons: became rich from ruthless and unscrupulous business practices

Big businesses meant that Robber Barons could set prices with no oversight from the government

Laisse-faire economic policies

• “Hands off” policy which allowed businesses to do whatever they want

• Market will regulate itself by supply and demand and government should not intervene

Social Darwinism

• Based on Darwin’s theory of evolution and “Survival of the fittest”

• It meant that the best-run businesses led by the most capable people would survive and prosper

• Social Darwinism was also frequently applied to society

How does laisse-faire economic policies and Social Darwinism relate to the Industrial Revolution

They relate to the capitalist systems of the Industrial Revolution and were the main reasons for no government regulation

Impact of labor unions on workers

Workers labored in dangerous/hazardous conditions with little pay

• Labor unions were a way for industrial workers to organize and fight as a whole, impacting them by getting the workers better working conditions and higher wages.

How did the Second Agricultural Revolution lead to the Industrial Revolution

The second agricultural revolution is what made the industrial revolution possible due to:

• Availability of food was based on the success of crops; a lot of the economy was based entirely on luck

• Mechanization of agriculture → farming was more efficient and let the world focus on political and economic systems rather than food crises

• The revolution led to a surplus of food, which led to population increase

• Displaced farmers move to the cities for jobs where a steady source of labor and mechanization opportunities were created

Successes and challenges of the revolutions in different countries

Industrialization was all over the place in other countries but in Egypt and Japan, there were issues either in leadership, environmental misfortune, poor industry, and tariffs.

• Egypt had Muhammad Ali leading the country, but he made unwise financial decisions and didn’t utilize the resources he was given effectively

• Japan had strong leadership and motivation for industrialization → they lucked out with good resources, even if they were a political target from other countries.

By employing what they were given, they found success in industrialization even though they did not have the luck of England.

How did labor unions impact workers

Because of the hazardous conditions, Labor Unions were a way for industrial workers to organize and fight as a whole, impacting them by getting the workers better working conditions and higher wages.

Capitalism

• The goal is freedom

• based on a free market (prices are determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses

• All production (businesses) is privately owned

• Government does not regulate business

• Major principle is Laissez Faire

• People compete to make money and own property

• People have freedom, but less equality (social class based on wealth)

Father of Capitalism

Adam Smith

Socialism

• The goal is fairness

• All production and distribution decisions are made by a central planner or government

  • Determines output and pricing levels, supply its citizens with food and healthcare

• Individuals can own private property

• Production for use, not profit

• An equitable distribution of wealth and material resources among all people

• No competitive free market

• Free access to goods and services

Communism

• Goal is equality

• Advocates for a classless society

• Origin comes from Karl Marx’s “The Communist Manifesto”

• Marx theorized that the classes would eventually go to war because the Industrial Revolution made the wealth gap larger

  • People would rise up and create a system in which people shared all goods and services

  • Proletariat vs Bourgeoise

What was life like before the Industrial Revolution? (around 1750)

• Life was primarily rural

• Short life expectancy

• Food availability depended on the success of crops each year

• Trade was limited to local/regional areas

How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the emergence of capitalism

Capitalism grew stronger because industrialization rewarded private business owners who invested in factories and machines. It emphasized private ownership, competition, and profit

How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the emergence of socialism

Socialism emerged as a reaction to worker exploitation. It argued that industries should be owned or regulated by the public to reduce inequality and improve workers’ lives

How did the Industrial Revolution lead to the emergence of communism

Communism called for workers to overthrow capitalist systems and create a classless society where property and production were collectively owned

Overall impact of the Industrial Revolution

Economic

• Shift from agrarian → factory-based economy

• Rise of capitalism & big business

• Mass production lowered costs

• Widened wealth gap between owners & workers

Social

• Rapid urbanization (growth of crowded cities)

• Harsh factory conditions; child labor

• Growth of middle class

• Rise of labor unions & worker rights movements

Political

• Spread of socialist & communist ideas (ex: Karl Marx)

• Governments began passing labor laws

• Increased political power of industrial nations (imperialism expanded)

Imperialism

A policy of extending the rule of authority of a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force

Colony

A country or area under the full or partial political control of another country and occupied by settlers from that country

Sphere of Influence

A country of area in which another country has exclusive investments or trading practices

Nationalism

Ideology based on the promise that individual's loyalty and devotion to the nation state surpasses other individual or group interests

National Identity → Nationalism ← Self determination

Self-Determination

The process by which a group of people freely form their own state and choose their own government

How was imperialism connected to ideas about race

• Imperialism was justified by beliefs in racial superiority (Europeans > everyone else)

• Ideas like Social Darwinism applied “survival of the fittest” to human societies, claiming stronger (European) nations should dominate weaker ones

• A supposed “hierarchy of races” ranked Europeans above non-European peoples, reinforcing the idea that others were inferior

• These beliefs were often framed as being scientifically supported, even though they were biased and inaccurate

• “White Man’s Burden” = concept that argued that Europeans had a duty to “civilize” and govern non-white societies

How is imperialism different from previous periods of empire creation

• Global & industrial: driven by industrialized nations, not just exploration

• Focus on raw materials + cheap labor (not just God, glory, gold)

• Justified by racial ideologies (“civilizing” mission)

• Enabled by advanced weapons & technology

• More about economic + industrial power expansion than settlement

What were the strengths of imperialist countries and the weaknesses of colonized countries

Imperialist countries (strengths):

• Advanced technology & weapons

• Industrial power (railroads, steamships)

• Strong nationalism & unity
  

Colonized countries (weaknesses):

• Diverse cultures/languages → less unity

• Weak governments

• Lower technology levels

• Internal conflicts

Economic motivations for imperialism

• Access to raw materials for factories

• Rise of capitalism creates competition

• New markets to sell goods

• new sources of labor

• The Industrial Revolution

Political motivations for imperialism

• Belief that global empires increased the ‘prestige’ of a nation

• Intense competition for land and power among European countries, Japan, and the USA

• Nationalism

Moral motivation for imperialism

• “White Man’s Burden”

  • Imperialists saw themselves as saviors to the people they colonized and native people were seen as unable to rule themselves and needed to be civilized

• “Hierarchy of Races”

  • Application of theory of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human societies created a sense of racial superiority

• European argument

  • European races were superior to all others and domination of the weaker races was “simply nature’s way of improving the human species”

• Racial thinking was “backed by science”

• Racial theories were put into political action

What is the difference between direct and indirect rule

• Direct rule: Imperial power removes local leaders and installs its own officials; full control over government, laws, and policies

• Indirect rule: Local rulers remain in power but must follow imperial authority (protectorate); limited self-governance while the empire controls major decisions

Scramble for Africa

• Scramble for Africa: rapid European invasion and colonization of Africa for resources and labor

• Driven by businessmen, missionaries, and politicians seeking economic gain

• Europeans used trick treaties and deception to take land

• Africans were often forced into labor and faced harsh, violent treatment

Berlin Conference

• Berlin Conference (1884–85): meeting where European powers set rules to divide Africa

• Allowed countries to claim land if they showed control (“effective occupation”)

• Held to prevent conflict between European nations

• No African leaders were included

• Claimed to be humanitarian but was driven by economic and political motives

• Accelerated the Scramble for Africa by making colonization more organized

What happens to the Congo in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference

• The Congo Free State was privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium (not the Belgian government)

• It was run like a business focused on rubber extraction

• Africans were forced into labor under brutal conditions

• Abuse (violence, punishments) led to millions of deaths

• International outrage forced Leopold to give control to Belgium’s government

Why is Ethiopia unique during the Scramble for Africa

• Ethiopia remained independent (not colonized by Europeans)

• Modernized its military under Emperor Menelik II

• Defeated Italy in the Battle of Adwa (1896)

• Successfully resisted European colonization, unlike most of Africa

Why is violence an inherent part of imperialism

• Imperialism involved taking control of unwilling territories, often leading to conflict

• Colonizers used force and coercion to maintain control and extract resources

• Forced labor and harsh punishments were commonly used in colonies

• Racial beliefs justified violence by labeling colonized people as inferior

• Violence was seen as a way to maintain order and “civilize” colonized societies

• Both physical and psychological violence were used to control populations

What started the Opium Wars

• Britain faced a trade imbalance with China (tea for silver drained British silver)

• Britain began illegally trading opium to China to balance trade

• Opium caused widespread addiction in China

• The Chinese government banned opium and destroyed shipments

• China’s crackdown led Britain to retaliate, starting the Opium Wars

Outcome of Opium Wars

• Britain won the Opium Wars

• China was forced to sign unequal treaties

• China had to open multiple ports to British trade

• China paid indemnities (costs/damages) to Britain

• British citizens gained extraterritorial rights (above Chinese law)

What started the Sepoy Mutiny

• British introduced new rifle cartridges greased with animal fat

• This offended both Hindu and Muslim religious beliefs

• Sepoys refused to use the cartridges

• British authorities punished and imprisoned sepoys

• These tensions led sepoys to revolt, starting the mutiny

Outcome of the Sepoy Mutiny

• Britain defeated the revolt

• The British East India Company was dissolved and Britain took direct control of India

• The rebellion created long-lasting fear, mistrust, and resentment between Indians and the British

How did Asia become imperialized

Asia

• After the Opium Wars, China was weakened, opening it up to other countries wanting more territory

• Southeast Asia became imperialized by mostly the French, Dutch, and British

• Burmese and Vietnam both misjudged European strength, and Britain got Burma, and France got Vietnam

How did Australia become imperialized

Australia

• Colonized by British criminals and drove out the Aboriginals or native Australians

• Offered free land to British citizens, and a gold rush made many come to Australia

How did the Americas become imperialized

Americas

• The US won the Spanish-American War and gained the Philippines in a peace treaty

• The US also took over Hawaii because they were worried other countries would take it first, and planters from the US in Hawaii had already overthrown the Hawaiian queen

Militarism

The belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; a policy of glorifying military power and values

Mobilization

The action of a country or its government preparing and organizing troops and resources for active service

Disillusion

Disappointment resulting from the discovery or realization that a belief, ideal, or expectation is false

Marxism

Belief that workers should replace capitalism with a classless society where wealth and industry are shared (comes from Karl Marx)

Alliance

A union or association formed for mutual benefit

Propaganda

Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view

Armistice

An agreement made by opposing sides in a war to stop fighting for a certain time

Nationalism

Ideology based on the promise that individual's loyalty and devotion to the nation state surpasses other individual or group interests

National Identity → Nationalism ← Self determination

Total War

Warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, mobilizes all of the resources of society to fight the war, and gives priority to warfare over non-combatant needs

Conscription

Compulsory enlistment for state service, typically into the armed forces

Partisan

A firm adherent (supporter) to a party, faction, cause, or person

MAIN causes of WWI

Militarism

• Industrialization leads to modernizing of European militaries and development of new weapons

Alliances

• Europe was connected through a system of alliances; required members to come to one another’s aid in case of attack

Imperialism

• Primary motivator is economics; competition for trade and colonies further strained relations

Nationalism

• Many European nations had developed strong nationalist sentiments; Serbia wanted to unify all of south-east Europe’s

  Slavic people as part of one country

Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

The Balkan League aimed to seize territories from the Ottoman Empire and promote national unity among Slavic peoples in the Balkans

• Balkan League consists of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

Triple Entente

Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Italy

What event started the fighting of WWI

Assassination of the Astro-Hungarian Archduke and Duchess on June 28th, 1914 by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip

Beginning of WWI

• July 1914: Austria declares war on Serbia after Serbia does not meet all the demands issued by Austria after the assassination

• Germany supported Austria, Russia & France supported Serbia → Germany declares war on Russia and Serbia

Which country joined WWI later

USA (in the Triple Entente)

Schlieffen Plan

• Strategy created by General Alfred Schlieffen to avoid a two-front battle (France in the west and Russia in the east)

• Germany planned to quickly defeat France first by invading through Belgium (which was a neutral country)

• After defeating France, Germany would move troops east to fight Russia, which was expected to mobilize more slowly

Why were Germany and other European countries optimistic about joining WWI

European countries entered WWI believing it would be a short war that would bring glory, victory, and national pride (heavy on national pride and romanticizing of war)

How was WWI different from previous wars

• New technology (e.g. machine guns, tanks, poison gas, etc.) made fighting more destructive/deadly → mass casualties of soldiers and civilians

• Trench warfare caused long stalemates and harsh conditions

• Many countries around the world became involved (global war)

How did alliances impact the events of WWI

Due to the alliance system, many countries had a obligation to back up their respective allied nations → small regional war turned into a major world war