VCE Psychology Unit 3 AoS2- Learning & Memory

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

What is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning refers to a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli. ​

How is it determined when classical conditioning has occurred?

Learning has occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. ​

What is a stimuli?

an object or event

What is a response?

an action

Classical Conditioning as two types of responses:

- unconditioned: unlearned or reflex

- conditioned: learned or associated

What are the key terms in Classical Conditioning

- neutral stimulus (NS): does not produce a response (eg. bell before training)

- unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally causes a response (eg. food causes salivation)

-unconditioned response (UCR): a natural, automatic reaction to the US (eg. salivating when seeing food)

- conditioned stimulus: a previously neutral stimulus that now causes a response when paired with the UCS (eg. bell after training)

- conditioned response: a learned response to the CS (salivating to bell)

What are the three phases of classical conditioning?

before conditioning, during conditioning, after conditioning

Phase 1: before condition

Neutral stimulus (NS) produces no relevant response; unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits The unconditioned response (UCR)

example:

- NS: bell > no salivation/irrelevant response

- UCS: food > UCR (salivation)

Phase 2: during conditioning

Neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce unconditioned response (UCR)

example:

- NS (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)

Phase 3: after conditioning

Neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), CS produces a conditioned response (CR), which is usually similar to the previously unconditioned response (UCR)

example:

- CR: salivation to sound of bell

OPERANT CONDITIONING

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future. ​

Operant conditioning = behaviour + consequence.​

what is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

Both classical and operant conditioning are types of associative learning but operant conditioning is voluntary and conscious.

What is the three-phase model of operation conditioning

​​​(Antecedent) "what happed before": anything (object, event, circumstance) that triggers a response

​(Behaviour) "what happens": the learner’s action to the antecedent ​

(Consequence) "what happens after": the event that occurs after the behaviour ​​

​Eg: Whenever I wear jeans from ‘Levi’ I get lots of compliments. ​

A = Levi jeans in my wardrobe ​

B = wear Levi jeans

​C = get lots of compliments​​​​

What are the 4 types of consequences

1. Positive Reinforcement

2. Negative Reinforcement

3. Positive Punishment

4. Negative Punishment

Define reinforcement

Any events that strengthens the likelihood of a response occurring again

What is positive reinforcement?

when a pleasant stimulus is added to encourage behaviour

eg. studying is reinforced by getting an A+

What is negative reinforcement?

when an unpleasant stimulus s removed to encourage behaviour

eg. eating is reinforced by the removal of hunger

Define punishment

Any events that weaken the likelihood of a response occurring again?

What is positive punishment?

When an unpleasant stimulus is added to discourage behaviour

eg. A barking dog is punished with a smack

What is negative punishment (cost response)?

When a pleasant stimulus is removed to discourage behaviour

eg. a naughty child is punished by taking their toys away

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

What is observational learning

a social-cognitive approach to learning that occurs when someone observes a model's actions and the consequences (positive or negative) of those actions (vicarious) to guide future behaviour.​

Reinforcement can be....

-​​External: money, grades, praise, status ​

-Internal: pride, joy, spiritual ​

-Vicarious: happen to someone else​

-Direct: happen to you

What makes us more likely to pay attention and imitate a model?​

-High status​

-Likeable

-Similar in age/gender​

-Familiar

-Visible ​

What are the five stages of processes in observational learning

-attention

-retention

-reproduction

-motivation

-reinforcement

what is the process of attention in observational learning

To learn by observing. The person must pay attention to the models, behaviour and its consequences.

attention is affected by...

-observer factors: interests, perceptual, ability, motivation, distractors

-model factors: attractiveness, similarities, status, success

-behaviour factors: important distinctiveness relevant to observer

example of attention

example: a cricket player will be able to pay more attention on a professional, then amateur because the professionals behaviour is more relevant and valuable

what is the process of retention in observational learning

The person must be able to remember the model's behaviour

- create meaningful/mental representation of actions

- making meaningful through strategies like visual imagery and verbal description

example of retention

example: the cricketer may visualise, and verbally describe a professionals, batting, stance and swing to aid memory

what is the process of reproduction in observational learning

The person must have the physical and cognitive ability to be able to reproduce the behaviour

-limitations in skills, ability or biology can restrict performance

-practice and feedback are required to refine limitation

example of reproduction

Even with a clear mental image of a cricket shot, reproducing it with elite position is unlikely without matching physical skills and practice

what is the process of motivation in observational learning

The observer must be motivated to continue imitating the behaviour. It is shaped by:

-usefulness of relevance of behaviour

- expectation of rewards or benefits

what is the process of reinforcement in observational learning

Reinforcement influences motivation, types include:

-​​External: money, grades, praise, status ​

-Internal: pride, joy, spiritual ​

-Vicarious: happen to someone else​

-Direct: happen to you

* punishment observed in a model can discourage imitation

What is self-efficacy and personal factors (according to Bandura)?

refers to an observer's self-confidence and self-esteem, affecting attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, and reinforcement

High vs Low self-efficacy

high self-efficacy: leads individuals to approach challenges with confidence, persist through difficulties, and recover quickly from setbacks.

low self-efficacy: causes individuals to doubt their abilities, avoid difficult tasks, and give up easily when faced with obstacles.

How is aggressive behaviour learned?

learnt through observation, and a cognitive representation is formed

The performance of an aggressive act is influenced by vicarious (indirect) and direct reinforcements

ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN MULTISTORE MODEL OF MEMORY

What is memory?

The processing encoding storage, and retrieval of information acquired through learning

What are the processes involved in memory?

-encoding: processing and converting information into a useable form

-storage: retaining information

-retrieval: information recovered from memory when needed

What does the multi-store model of memory propose?

that there are three independent stores that process information in different ways, and vary in function, capacity, and duration

Sensory memory

-function: receive sensory information from the environment and briefly holds sensory input

-duration: 0.2-4 seconds

-capacity: virtually unlimited

-encodong: unprocessed, exact copies of sensory input

-types: iconic memory (visual, 0.2-04 seconds), echoic (auditory, 3-4 seconds)

-entry points: 1, through the sensory receptors

What happens to sensory memory when it is not attended to

-the memory will be lost

-this allows for continuity of perception (eg. movies, sparklers)

Short Term (Working) Memory

-function: holds memory temporarily for use and processing

-duration: 18-20 seconds (significant decline after 12 seconds)

-capacity: 5-9 items

-encoding: mostly acoustic

-entry points: 2, attention from sensory memory and retrieval from long-term memory

How does information leave the short term memory?

-decay: memory fade, if it is not rehearsed

-displacement: new information pushes out existing information if capacity is exceeded

Why does the short term memory have two entry points?

- Information from the sensory memory is received and processed

-information from the long-term memory is retrieved and updated

What are some memory techniques for short-term memory?

- rehearsal: extend the duration in the short-term memory

- chunking: increases short-term memory capacity by grouping information

Long-term memory

- function: stores large amount of information for long periods

- duration: relatively permanent

- capacity: unlimited

- encoding: mainly semantic

-entry points: through encoding and storage of the short term memory

types of long term memory

explicit: conscious recall of facts or events:

- semantic (facts, general knowledge)

- episodic (personal life events)

implicit: unconscious and shown through actions or behaviours

-procedural (motor skills and actions)

-emotional responses (conditionaed emotional reactions)

Strengths and weaknesses in the multi store model

strengths

- clear distinction between memory store

- describes memory flow and processes

- explains forgetting memories

weaknesses

- oversimplified

- lacks biological basis (no brain structure or neural processes)

- doesn't account for all types of retrieval or rehearsal mechanism

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN LONG TERM MEMORIES

What are explicit memories?

- Explicit memories are conscious, and you can express them

-when explicit memories are used, there are deliberate and conscious attempts to retrieve information

What are the types of explicit memories?

-episodic memory: memory of personal experiences (episodes)

-semantic memory: of general knowledge and self facts

What are implicit memories?

- explicit memories are unconscious, and hard to describe in words, but can be expressed through actions

-they do not require conscious or intentional retrieval

What are the types of implicit memories?

- procedural memory: memory of actions, skills, habits, and routines (e.g. how to tie shoelaces)

- conditioned emotional memory: involuntary responses like fear, disgust, anger, and excitement

What are the brain regions involved in long-term memory?

- cerebellum

- basal ganglia

- hippocampus

- amygdala

- neocortex

What is the role of the cerebellum?

Encodes, stores, and retrieves procedural memories (implicit), such as motor skills and reflexes.

any classically conditioned memory is stored here

eg. Riding a bike or typing on a keyboard without thinking

What is the role of the basal ganglia?

Encodes and retrieves habitual or procedural memories

eg. Brushing your teeth automatically each morning

What is the role of the hippocampus?

encode: all explicit memories.

binds different elements of our experiences into an integrated memory trace and feeds into the neocortex (hippocampus has layers).

this connection between the hippocampus and neocortex helps with the retrieval of episodic memories.

does not store

eg. Remembering last birthday party (episodic)

What is the role of the amygdala?

encodes: emotional responses that have been marked as important signals

storage: nothing is stored

retrieval: when a memory marked as important signals is recalled, the amygdala is reactivated

eg. Feeling fear when recalling a car accident you were in

What is the role of a neocortex?

does not encode

Stores explicit memories in respective lobes of the brain

retrieves semantic memory by activating the lobe of where they are stored

eg. seeing colour blue, occipital lobe is acitvated

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY, ALZHEIMERS AND APHANTASIA

What is autobiographical memory?

- the component of explicit memory that represents memories of our personally experienced events and self-knowledge.

- It consists of semantic and episodic memories.

- the event is reconstructed by using our episodic memory to re-experience it, and our semantic memory for self-facts about that time period.

Example of Autobiographical memory

memory of the autobiographical event of a 16th birthday party

- episodic: conversations with people at the party, feeling happy, dancing to music, taste of cake

- semantic: location of the party, what flavour the cake was, who was invited, what music was played

What is possible imagined future?

- involves projecting yourself forward in time to pre-experience an event that may occur in the future (mental time travel).

- relies episodic and semantic memory.

- this hypothetical event is constructed by using our semantic memory for schemas (knowledge) to set the scene and our episodic memory to experience it in 'first person mode'. ​

What Aphantasia

People with aphantasia lack mental imagery.

Visual imagery is crucial for the episodic component of autobiographical memory.

Aphantasics often report severely deficient autobiographical memory and the inability to imagine the future. ​​

What is Alzheimer's disease

a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive deterioration of neurons, causing memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behaviour and personality.

Neural effects of Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid plaques: Protein clumps that form on axon terminals, blocking communication between neurons.

Neurofibrillary tangles: Twisted tau proteins inside neurons, disrupting function.

Reduced acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter crucial for memory and learning.

What is anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia: The inability to form new episodic and semantic memories (the future)

retrograde amnesia: the inability to retrieve previously stored episodic and semantic memories (the past)

Spread of Alzheimer's: Hippocampus

Begins in the hippocampus

resulting in anterograde amnesia for episodic and semantic memories and retrograde amnesia for episodic memories only.

The person can’t learn new things and forgets where they put objects.​

​

Autobiographical memories are affected (the episodic component).

Spread of Alzheimer's: Neocortex

Spreads to the neocortex resulting in retrograde amnesia for all explicit memories

The person might not recognise a loved one or forget a past memory. ​

​

Autobiographical memories are affected (the episodic and semantic components). ​

Spread of Alzheimer's: Cerebellum

Spreads to other areas of the brain such as the cerebellum (procedural memories) and the brain stem (vital functions). ​

loss of motor coordination and inability to regulate vital functions, such as breathing and heart rate regulation.

Alzheimer's affects autobiographical memory, especially the episodic component (first-person experience), this means...

Retrieval of personal past events becomes more factual (semanticised) and less vivid/visual.

People with Alzheimer’s struggle to create possible imagined futures, as this relies on episodic + semantic memory.

tend to "live in the past".

MNEUMONICS

what is mnemonics?

devices or techniques used to aid encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

what is acrostics

uses an invented sentence where the first letter of each word is a cue to an idea you need to remember.

eg. "never eat soggy weetbix" > north east south west

what is an acronym

uses a pronounceable word formed from the first letters of a sequence of words.

BRASS is an acronym for how to shoot a rifle- Breath, Relax, Aim, Sight, Squeeze.​

What is the method of loci

the items that needs to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations. ​​

eg. to remember a shopping list, each product could be imagined at a different location along a familiar street.​​

Example of mneumonics

What are songlines?

Songlines are sung narratives used by Elders to pass down vital survival knowledge about Country, such as food sources, seasons, and laws. They are Song narratives that use multi-modal performances conducted on country to form a journey.

How are Songlines used for navigation across Country?

Knowledgeable individuals can navigate by singing the Songline, which describes landmarks like waterholes, allowing them to follow paths embedded in the land.

At each location, a song, dance, or story is performed to retrieve specific information relevant to that place (e.g., when crocodile eggs are ready to eat).

How do Songlines demonstrate the memory processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval?

Encoding: through listening, repeating, and practising the song

Storage: knowledge is embedded in the song and held by the Elder

Retrieval: by singing the song at relevant locations

The information is stored in the song like we store information in our phones

compare and contrast songlines and the method of loci

Both Songlines and the method of loci use spatial cues to encode and retrieve information, but Songlines are culturally embedded, multisensory, and tied to real-world locations and survival, while the method of loci is an internalised, individualised strategy used mainly for academic or practical memory tasks.

songlines and the method of loci: similarities

Spatial structure: Both use locations or paths (real or imagined) to organise information.

Aid in retrieval: Both rely on retracing a path (mentally or physically) to retrieve memories.

Encoding technique: Both involve linking information to specific places, improving recall.

Mnemonics: Both are types of mnemonic devices

Sequential recall: Both help with recalling information in order

songlines and the method of loci: differences

Multi-modal system of knowledge: Storytelling

the oral transmission of knowledge, where information about laws, survival, Dreaming, morals, and history is embedded in stories passed down through generations.

eg. Sharing Dreaming stories to communicate complex knowledge relating to the natural world and survival

Multi-modal system of knowledge: Images and Symbols

Symbols and images are used in rock art, paintings, carvings, and ceremonial designs to represent people, places, animals, events, or knowledge.

eg. A dot painting showing concentric circles and tracks might represent a campsite or waterhole — a person familiar with the symbols can recall when to visit that site and what food is available there in different seasons.

Kinship

structures refer to social organisation in which everyone is related to each other in defined ways.

determines an individual rights to story and imagery

structure for scaffolding knowledge transmission

knowledge is literally embedded in kinship

What is Aboriginal ways of knowing?

Aboriginal ways of knowing is holistic and relational to Country, and incorporate physical, spiritual and cultural knowledge which is encoded through multi-modal performances.

eg. oral traditions, storytelling, song, dance, ceremony, visual symbols.

Still learning (28)

You've started learning these terms. Keep it up!