Unit 4 AP Psychology Vocab

Attributions

Explanations or interpretations of the causes of behaviors or events.

Dispositional attributions

Attributing behavior to internal factors such as personality traits, abilities, or motives.

Situational attributions

Attributing behavior to external factors such as the environment, situational constraints, or luck.

Explanatory style

The habitual way individuals explain events, including their causes and consequences.

Optimistic explanatory style

Tendency to attribute positive events to stable, internal factors and negative events to unstable, external factors.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Tendency to attribute negative events to stable, internal factors and positive events to unstable, external factors.

Actor/observer bias

The tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external factors (situation) while attributing others' behavior to internal factors (disposition).

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors (such as ability or effort) and failures to external factors (such as luck or circumstances) to maintain self-esteem.

Internal locus of control

The belief that outcomes are primarily controlled by one's own actions, choices, and efforts.

External locus of control

The belief that outcomes are primarily controlled by external factors such as luck, fate, or powerful others.

Mere exposure effect

The phenomenon whereby people tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction or expectation that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, usually due to the belief influencing behavior.

Social comparison

Evaluating one's abilities, opinions, and social status by comparing oneself to others.

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself with others who are perceived as superior in some way, leading to motivation for self-improvement or dissatisfaction.

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself with others who are perceived as inferior in some way, leading to enhanced self-esteem or reduced stress.

Relative deprivation

Feeling deprived or disadvantaged relative to others with whom one compares oneself, leading to feelings of resentment or dissatisfaction.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, often oversimplified and applied uncritically to all members of that group.

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort required to process information or complete a task.

Prejudice

A negative attitude or emotional response toward a group of people based solely on their membership in that group.

Discrimination

Behavior or actions that unfairly treat individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular category or group.

Implicit attitudes

Automatic, unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence behavior and perception.

Just-world phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, which can lead to blaming victims of misfortune.

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to perceive greater similarity among members of those not belonging to one's own group compared to members of one's own group.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor members of one's own group over those who are not members.

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic or cultural group, often accompanied by a lack of appreciation for cultural differences.

Belief perseverance

Persistence of one's initial beliefs even after the basis for the belief has been discredited.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.

Cognitive dissonance

The psychological discomfort experienced when simultaneously holding conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Social norms

Accepted and expected behaviors and attitudes within a group or society.

Social influence theory

The study of how individual behavior is affected by the presence and actions of others.

Normative social influence

Conforming to group norms in order to fit in, gain approval, or avoid rejection.

Informational social influence

Conforming to group norms because of a desire to be correct or to gain accurate information.

Persuasion

The process of intentionally trying to change someone's attitude or behavior.

Elaboration likelihood model

A model explaining how attitudes are formed and changed through two routes: central and peripheral.

Central route

Persuasion method based on facts, logic, and reasoning to influence attitudes or behaviors.

Peripheral route

Persuasion method using superficial cues or emotional appeals rather than logical arguments.

Halo effect

The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinions or feelings in another area.

Low ball technique

Relies on commitment to a specific deal, which then changes to become less favorable (ex. hidden fees).

Foot-in-the-door technique

Getting someone to agree to a small request to increase the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later.

Door-in-the-face technique

Making a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Obedience

Compliance with commands or orders from an authority figure.

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals and values over group goals.

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals and values over personal goals.

Multiculturalism

Acceptance and appreciation of diverse cultures within a society.

Group polarization

The tendency for group discussion to enhance group members' initial inclinations, leading to more extreme decisions.

Groupthink

The tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of a situation and poor decision-making.

Diffusion of responsibility

The belief that responsibility is spread across group members, leading to reduced personal accountability and lower motivation to act.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Social facilitation

Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve, reducing conflict and promoting reconciliation.

Social traps

Situations where individuals or groups pursue immediate rewards that later prove detrimental to their well-being.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

Experts who apply psychological principles to improve workplace productivity and well-being.

Burnout

Physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress or overwork.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Prosocial behavior

Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others.

Social debt

The feeling of obligation to repay others for help or favors received.

Social reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Social responsibility norm

Expectation that people will help those in need, regardless of exchanges or benefits.

Bystander effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Situational variables

Factors in the environment that can influence behavior.

Attentional variables

Factors related to focus and awareness that can influence behavior.

Psychodynamic theory

A theory of personality and psychotherapy that emphasizes unconscious processes and conflicts.

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that occur without awareness, influencing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Ego defense mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge or accept a threatening or anxiety-inducing reality.

Displacement

Redirecting an impulse or emotion from its original target to a less threatening or safer alternative.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable impulses, feelings, or thoughts to others.

Rationalization

Creating logical or socially acceptable explanations to justify unacceptable behaviors or feelings.

Reaction formation

Expressing the opposite of one's true feelings or impulses when they are unacceptable.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development in the face of stress or anxiety.

Repression

Unconsciously pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories out of awareness.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses or emotions into socially acceptable activities.

Projective tests

Psychological tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious aspects of personality.

Preconscious mind

Thoughts and memories not currently in awareness but readily accessible with effort.

Unconscious mind

A reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories outside of conscious awareness.

Humanistic psychology

A perspective emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people.

Unconditional regard

Accepting and valuing others without judgment or conditions.

Self-actualizing tendency

The innate drive to grow, develop, and fulfill one's potential.

Social-cognitive theory

A theory emphasizing the interaction between individuals' behaviors, cognitive processes, and social context.

Reciprocal determinism

The idea that behavior, cognition, and environment mutually influence each other.

Self-concept

A person's overall beliefs and feelings about themselves.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks.

Self-esteem

Overall evaluation of one's own worth or value.

Trait theories

Theories of personality that focus on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics or traits.

Big Five theory

A widely accepted theory proposing five core dimensions (traits) of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability (neuroticism).

Agreeableness

A personality trait characterized by trust, cooperation, and friendliness toward others.

Openness to experience

A personality trait characterized by curiosity, creativity, and openness to new ideas and experiences.

Extraversion

A personality trait characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait characterized by self-discipline, organization, and reliability.

Emotional stability

A personality trait characterized by calmness, self-confidence, and resilience to stress (low neuroticism).

Personality inventories

Questionnaires or tests used to assess personality traits, attitudes, and behaviors.

Factor analysis

A statistical technique used to identify clusters of related traits or factors within personality data.

Drive-reduction theory

A theory proposing that motivation arises from the need to reduce internal drives (such as hunger or thirst) to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal environment by regulating physiological processes.

Arousal theory

The theory that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal or stimulation.

Optimal level of arousal

The level of arousal at which an individual performs at their best.