Ethics Study Guide #3

Nonconsequentialist (Deontological) Theories of Morality

• Moral judgment of the act itself

• Consequences do not, and should not, enter into our judging of whether actions or people are moral or immoral

What are the main nonconsequentialist theories of morality?

Act, rule, intuitionism, divine command theory

Act Nonconsequentialism

• Intuitionism

• Each individual action is judged by whether it follows a moral duty

Rule Nonconsequentialism

An action is morally right if it aligns with a moral rule or duty that should generally always be obeyed

Intuitionism

• The ethical view that some moral truths are known immediately through intuition

• “It feels good, so do it!”

Divine Command Theory

An action is right or wrong because God commands or forbids it

Duty Ethics

• Deontological ethics

• An action is morally right when it is done out of duty and in accordance with moral rules, not because it produces the best consequences

• “We have a duty to do the right thing.”

Immanuel Kant

• Categorical imperative

• Duty Ethics

• Said you cannot include outcomes to determine moral worth, you must only focus on the act in itself

Categorical Imperative

• We have a duty to follow the universal law

• If an act that you do cannot be applied to everybody, then it is not moral

Problem with Categorical Imperative

• Contradict’s Kant’s claim

• Makes you look at the outcome

• Conflicts perfect duties 

• No exceptions

The Grounding for Metaphysics of Morals

• Most things are only “good” in certain situations, but one thing that is always good is goodwill

• Three claims

What are the three claims of the grounding for metaphysics of morals?

• The action must be done from duty in order to have moral worth.

• Moral worth depends on the rule or principle (maxim) you follow, not the result

• Acting good because the moral law requires it, not because of personal desire or gain

Goodwill (Kant)

• Always good because it is good in itself

• All humans are born with goodwill (free will)

• Acting from duty

What are the main kinds of motives? (Kant)

• Duty

• Inclination

• Self-interest

Duty Motive

• Acting because it is morally required, out of respect for the moral law

• Ex. Returning a lost wallet because you believe it is your moral duty, not because of reward or fear

Inclination Motive

• Acting based on feelings, desires, or personal likes/dislikes

• Ex. Donating to charity because it makes you feel good, not because it’s morally required

Self-interest Motive

• Acting to gain personal benefit, avoid punishment, or get a reward

• Ex. Returning a lost wallet to get a reward

Maxim (Kant)

• The description of the act

• Duty to follow the maxim

What are the four kinds of duties? (Kant)

• Duty to self

• Duty to others

• Perfect duty

• Imperfect duty

Duty to Self

• Obligations to respect and preserve your own moral integrity, life, and rationality

• Ex. Not killing yourself, not wasting your talents

Duty to Others

• Obligations to treat other people with respect and fairness

• Ex. Keeping promises, being honest

Perfect Duty

• Duties that must be done all the time, NO exceptions

• Ex. Not lying, not breaking a promise, not killing yourself

Imperfect Duty

• Duties that are only done sometimes

• Ex. Giving money to those in need

Arguments For Lying

• Justified in defense of the innocent, including self-defense

• Little white lies

• Justified when it is done in order to protect trade secrets in business

Arguments Against Lying

• It causes distrust in human relationships

• Domino effect

• Gives an unfair advantage or power to the liar

Arguments For Cheating

• The world is a dog-eat-dog jungle, one in which you must often cheat to survive and get ahead

• It’s okay to cheat, so long as you don’t get caught

Arguments Against Cheating

• Unfair and unjust to others

• Falsified qualifications for professions

Arguments For Breaking Promises

• One should have the individual freedom to decide which promises to keep and which to break

• Justified when more important moral issues are involved

• Promises made in unusual situations (deathbed)

Arguments Against Breaking Promises

• Destroys human relationships

• Seriously affects people’s life choices

• Domino effect

Arguments For Stealing

• Justified in crucial emergency situations, such as to prevent the starvation of children

• Justified when it involves stealing government and military secrets from potential or real enemies

• Steal from institutions and organizations because they can afford it and end up with most of our money anyway

Arguments Against Stealing

• Constitutes a serious invasion of privacy

• Domino effect

• Destructive effects, both physical and psychological, upon victims

Problems with Intuitionism

• There is no proof that we have an inborn, innate sense of morality

• Intuition is immune to objective criticism, because it applies only to the possessor

• Lacks scientific or philosophical respectability

Problems with Act Nonconsequentialism

• With morality so highly individualized, how can we know we are doing what is best for everyone involved in a particular situation?

• How will we justify our actions except by saying it felt like the right thing to do?

Example of Categorical Test

• Suppose I made a promise that I did not intend to keep,

• Suppose this were universalized (everyone does it),

• Then there would be no such thing as a promise

• Therefore, I cannot will this act

Utilitarianism

• The right action or rule is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness or benefits for the greatest number of people

• Minimizes unhappiness for as many as possible

J. Bentham

Founder of utilitarianism and hedonism

J.S. Mill

• Utilitarianism was the only reasonable moral system

• Two forms of pleasure

• Quality of pleasure over quantity of pleasure

A. Rand

• Known for rational ethical egoism

• Philosophy based on objective reality

Hedonism

• Pleasure or happiness is the ultimate good and primary motivator of behavior, while minimizing pain as much as possible

• What is good is pleasurable, and what is bad is painful