UNIT 0: RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

(1/8) Cognitive Perspective

This approach focuses on how mental processes such as memory, thinking, and perception affect decision-making and problem-solving.

(1/8) Biological Perspective

This approach focuses on how physiological factors such as genetics, brain structure, and hormones affect physical and psychological functioning.

(1/8) Evolutionary Perspective

This approach focuses on how the drive for survival and adaptation over generations affects human traits and behaviors.

(1/8) Sociocultural Perspective

This approach focuses on how cultural norms and social environments affect behavior.

(1/8) Biopsychosocial Perspective

This approach focuses on how the combination of biological predispositions, psychological states, and social-cultural contexts affects overall human health and behavior.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Mental Processes

The internal, private experiences (such as thoughts, feelings, and motives) that cannot be directly observed.

(1/8) Psychodynamic Perspective

This approach focuses on how unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences affect an individual's adult personality and behavior.

(1/8) Behavoral Perspective

This approach focuses on how environmental stimuli and reinforcement learned through rewards and punishments affect behaviors.

(1/8) Humanistic Perspective

This approach focuses on how an individual's drive for self-actualization and free will affect personal growth and self worth.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms your preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms your preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct when estimating one's own knowledge or abilities.

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation not personal opinion or logic alone

Scientific Method

A systematic approach for gathering and organizing information in a way that minimizes error and bias.

Falsifiable

statement can be shown to be incorrect through observation or experimentation

Peer Review

Experts in a field evaluate a research manuscript before it is published

Replication

The repetition of a research to determine if the basic findings can be applied to other circumstances

Reliability

The extent to which a test or research method yields consistent, repeatable results.

Validity

The extent to which a research experiment measures what it is actually intended to measure

The American Psychological Association (APA)

Creates ethical guidelines for psychologists

Research Design

the framework chosen to integrate different components of a study in a coherent way

Methodology

The specific rules procedures used to identify, analyze information about a topic

Quantitative Data

Numerical information that can be measured and analyzed using statistics.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive information

Likert Scales (quantitative data)

from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Structured Interviews (qualitative data)

interviewer asks each respondent the same set of questions in the exact same order

Survey Technique (quantitative and qualitative data)

A method of gathering information from a large sample of people

wording effect

the effect that subtle changes in the way questions are phrased can have on the answer

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to answer questions that will be viewed favorably by others

Naturalistic Observation

A research design where the researcher observes and records in natural setting without interfering.

Case Study

A research design where an in depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event

Correlational Research

A research design that examines the extent to which two variables are related to each other.

Third Variable Problem (Correlational Research)

Issue in correlational research where an unmeasured variable is responsible for the observed relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables using dots.

Coefficient

A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other variable decreases.

Experimental Method

A research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable while holding other factors constant.

Independent Variable

the variable we manipulates

Dependent Variable

the variable we measure

Confounding Variable

a variable that influences both the independent and dependent variable, creating false association

Operational Definitions

measurable definition of the variables in an experiment so they can be repeated

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment being tested.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance → minimizes preexisting differences between the groups.

Placebo Effect

A psychological effect in which a participant's symptoms improve because they believe they are receiving a treatment.

Experimenter Bias

the scientists performing the research influence the results in the direction of the expected outcome.

Single Blind Study

An experiment in which the participants do not know which group they are in, but the experimenters do.

Double Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which both the researchers and the participants are unaware of who received the treatment and who received the placebo.

Placebo Condition

A condition in an experiment where participants receive a fake treatment

Sample

A smaller group of participants selected from a larger population to be studied

Representative Sample

A sample that closely matches the characteristics and diversity of the overall population.

Random Sample

A sample drawn in such a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Sample Bias

a sample that does not accurately represent the target population but benefit experimenter

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to settings outside of the research

Descriptive Statistics (including measures of central tendency and variation.)

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

Inferential Statistics (Descriptive Statistics)

Mathematical methods used to draw conclusions or make predictions about a population based on sample data.

Measure of Central Tendency

A single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set of data

explain the mean

the mean shows the overall average of all values → has high or low values

explain Median

the middle values when the data is arranged in order

Mode

the most frequently occurring value → identify common result

Range

the spread of the data → how varied the data is

normal curve

Regression to the Mean

tendency of large scores to fall back toward the average when measured a second time

Positive skew

few score high but a lot score low (tail points toward the higher)

Negative Skew

few score low, a lot score high (tail points toward lower)

Percentile Rank (for example 80%)

the percentage score that are equal or lower than your score → 80% you did better than or equal to 80% of people

Biomodal Distribution (means data come from 2 different groups)

data with 2 common peaks (2 most frequent values) → left shows people who scored low, right shows people who scored high

Statistical Significance

how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, P > (0.05) then its chance, P< 0.05 then its not chance

Effect Sizes

quantitative measure of the affect

Meta-Analysis

research design that uses multiple studies to assess

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Reviews and approves research before it happens

Informed consent

consent of a participant to join

Informed assent

the agreement of someone who is not able to give legal consent (child)

confidentiality

ensures a participant's private information is kept safe

deception

Intentionally misleading participants

confederates

an actor who is part of the experiment but pretends to be an ordinary participant to deceive the real participants

debriefing

POST experiment explanation of a study