(6) Critical Issues Related to Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Development during Prenatal Development

Spontaneous Abortion (Miscrriages)

expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is unable to survive outside the womb occurred less than 20 weeks

Spontaneous Abortion (Miscrriages) - Stillbirth

miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks of gestation (approx. 5 months)

Teratogen

environmental agent such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities

Teratogen

• Pregnant women typically need 300 to 500 additional calories a day

  • Underweight – should gain 28-40 lbs.

  • Normal weight – should gain 25-35 lbs.

  • Overweight – should gain only 11-20 lbs.

Teratogen - Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)

found in the CNS and the retina of the eyes, and it is believed to be important to the development of these areas

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

found in leafy vegetables and in fortified cereals

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

Inadequate levels of folic acid might at risk of developing neurological defect: anencephaly and spina bifida

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

Calorie deficit can lead to fetal growth restriction and low birth weight

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

Vitamin A and zinc deficiencies result in a higher risk of death for both child and mother

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

Babies born to mothers with a vitamin D deficiency may suffer from weak or soft bones

Teratogen - Folic Acid or Folate (A B vitamin)

Regular exercise prevents constipation and reduces back pain, and it may reduce the risk of complications such as gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and cesarean delivery

Medical Drugs - Thalidomide

banned after it was found to have caused stunted or missing limbs, severe facial deformities, and defective organs

Medical Drugs - Antibiotic tetracycline

certain barbiturates, opiates, and other central nervous system depressants

Medical Drugs - Antibiotic tetracycline

Several hormones, including diethylstilbestrol (DES) and androgens

Medical Drugs - Antibiotic tetracycline

Certain anticancer drugs, such as methotrexate

Medical Drugs - Accutane

a drug often prescribed for severe acne; drugs used to treat epilepsy

Medical Drugs - Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Naproxen and Ibuprofen are linked to birth defects when taken anytime from the first trimester

Opioids

associated with small babies, fetal death, preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium, and long-term effects include deficiencies in growth as well as attentional, memory, and perceptual problems

Opioids - Neonate Abstinence Syndrome

condition in which newborns may show sleep disturbances, tremors, difficulty regulating their bodies, irritability and crying, diarrhea, fever, and feeding difficulties

Alcohol

most common cause of intellectual disability and the leading preventable cause of birth defects

Alcohol - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy

Tobacco

during pregnancy also brings increased risks of miscarriage; growth retardation; stillbirth; small head circumference; sudden infant death; colic (uncontrollable, extended crying for no apparent reason) in early infancy; long-term respiratory, neurological, and behavioral problems; and later obesity and cardiovascular disease

Caffeine

intake under 300 milligrams a day is not associated with an increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, or birth defects

Marijuana

is the most commonly used recreational drug during pregnancy

Marijuana

Marijuana exposure during pregnancy is not associated with birth defects

Marijuana

Subtle deficits in problem-solving skills and it may alter patterns of cerebral blood flow

Marijuana

Show minor signs of irritability or altered sleeping patterns

Cocaine

during pregnancy has been associated with spontaneous abortion, delayed growth, premature labor, low birth weight, small head size, birth defects, and impaired neurological development

Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure

is associated with preterm delivery and low birth weight

Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure

Implicated in fetal brain damage to areas of the brain involved in learning, memory, and control

Toxoplasmosis

caused by parasites in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of cats that causes fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight, seizures, miscarriages, etc

Toxoplasmosis

Air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extremes of of heat and humidity

Toxoplasmosis

Fetal exposure to low levels of environmental toxins, such as lead, mercury, and dioxin, as well as nicotine and ethanol, may explain the sharp rise of asthma, allergies, and autoimmune disorders such as lupus

Toxoplasmosis

Women who have routine dental X-rays during pregnancy triple their risk of having full-term, low-birth-weight babies

Toxoplasmosis

In utero exposure to radiation has been linked to miscarriage, mental retardation, small head size, increased cancer, and lowered IQ

Maternal Factors

Newborns whose mothers experienced moderate levels of both positive and negative stress showed signs of accelerated neurological development

Maternal Factors

Mothers had shown moderate anxiety midway through pregnancy scored higher on measures of motor and mental development

Maternal Factors

A mother’s self-reported stress and anxiety during pregnancy has been associated with more active and irritable temperament in newborns, inattentiveness during a developmental assessment in 8-month-olds, and negative emotionality or behavioral disorders in early childhood

Maternal Factors

Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery

Maternal Factors

Children of mothers who were depressed during pregnancy were more likely to be born premature, be developmentally delayed as toddlers and show elevated levels of violent and antisocial behaviors in adolescence

Maternal Factors

The chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal age

Maternal Factors

Women 30 to 35 are more likely to suffer complications due to diabetes, high blood pressure, or severe bleeding

Maternal Factors

Higher risk of premature delivery, retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and chromosomal abnormalities

Maternal Factors

Adolescent mothers tend to have premature or underweight babies

Paternal Factors

A man’s exposure to lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, pesticides, or high ozone levels may result to abnormal or poor quality sperm

Paternal Factors

Men who smoke have an increased likelihood transmitting genetic abnormalities, and heart defects

Paternal Factors

Exposure to father’s secondhand smoke has been linked with asthma, attentional problems, low birth weight, and cancer

Paternal Factors

Older fathers may be a significant source of birth defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperms

Paternal Factors

Advanced paternal age is associated with increases in the risk of several rare conditions, including dwarfism

Paternal Factors

Having an older father is a risk factor of schizophrenia

Paternal Factors

Advanced age of the father also may be a factor in bipolar disorder and autism and related disorders