Intro to Psychology Exam #3

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

what are the three retention measures that are evidence that learning persists?

recall, recognition, relearning

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

ex. fill in the blank question

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

ex. multiple choice question

relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

ex. reviewing coursework to prep for a final exam

what are the three things we must do in order to remember according to the human memory information-processing model?

1. encode to get info into our brain

2. store to retain that info

3. retrieve to later get the info back out

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously (some unconsciously)

What is the information-processing paradigm?

It's a model that compares human memory to a computer, explaining how we encode, store, and retrieve information through stages like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

What are the three stages of the Atkinson and Shiffrin information-processing model of memory?

1. Sensory memory - first recording of to-be remembered information (fleeting, brief)

2. Short-term memory - processing of information, encoded through rehearsal (stored or forgotten)

3. long-term memory - information is moved here for later retrieval (permanent, limitless)

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

permastore

lifetime retention of something

ex. remembering the names of the kids from your high school 30yrs later

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

What two factors influence working memory?

Working memory is influenced by both nature (genetic/biological factors) and nurture (environmental experiences and learning).

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings (produces implicit memories)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (encode many explicit memories consciously through this)

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

retention of learned skills (how to ride a bike) or classically conditioned associations (reaction to dentists office) independent of conscious recollection.

explicit (declarative) memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (requires attention + effort)

ex. recalling a personal memory like ur high school graduation ceremony

Which brain areas process implicit vs. explicit memory?

Implicit: cerebellum and basal ganglia

Explicit: hippocampus and frontal lobes

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

ex. family holidays

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

ex. psychology concepts

What three types of information do we automatically process without conscious effort? (besides learned skills + classical conditioning)

1. space: we remember where information appears (like where something is on a page).

2. time: we keep track of the sequence of events (helps us retrace our steps).

3. frequency: we subconsciously count how often things happen

iconic (EYE-conic) memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

What was George Sperling's iconic memory experiment?

He flashed a grid of letters on a screen for 1/20 of a second. Participants could recall only a few letters, but when cued to report a specific row immediately after, they could recall it perfectly showing that all information was momentarily available in sensory memory.

echoic (ECHO-ic) memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

What did George Miller's research reveal about short-term memory capacity?

He found that people can store about seven bits of information (give or take two) in short-term memory, such as seven digits, six letters, or five words (if nothing distracts us)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

ex. ROYGBIV

hierarchies

organizing knowledge into few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

ex. organizing animals -> mammals -> dogs

Method of Loci

use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

massed practice (cramming)

practice that can produce speedy, short term learning and high feelings of confidence

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

Who was Hermann Ebbinghaus, and what were his major findings?

German memory researcher who discovered the forgetting curve (memory fades quickly, then levels off), the spacing effect (repetition over time improves memory), and helped inspire the serial position effect (our tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (repeated self-testing)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

ex. rereading a chapter w/o engaging with the material

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

ex. remembering "puppy" by thinking about how playful and cute puppies are

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage

How do the left and right frontal lobes process different types of memories?

The left frontal lobe is more active when recalling facts, language, and logical information, while the right frontal lobe is more involved in retrieving visual scenes, emotions, and spatial memories.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory; memories migrating from hippocampus to cortex (supported by sleep)

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (noteworthy for their vividness and our confidence in them)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation (neural basis for learning and memory)

who was William James and what was his contribution to psychology?

the process that our associations are activated without our awareness, referred to as priming

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

ex. thinking of the sky after hearing the word blue

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

context dependent memory

theory that information learned in a particular situation/place is better remembered when in that same situation/place

ex. visiting ur childhood home and old memories surface

state dependent memory

theory of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind

ex. if u hide money drunk u can only find it if u get drunk again

mood-dependent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories (remembering past, but can't form new memories)

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past (unable to remember the past, but can form new memories)

proactive (forward-acting) interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

ex. you can't remember ur new phone number because ur old number keeps coming to mind

retroactive (backward-acting) interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

ex. a student struggling to recall old info for a final bc they learned new material

repression (Sigmund Freud)

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

- lingers and can retrieved by some later cue or during therapy

- central to his psychoanalytical theory of personality

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Who is Elizabeth Loftus and what is she known for?

cognitive psychologist known for her research that memory is constructive, the fallibility of human memory and how its distorted + influenced by external info.

- profound impact on the legal system (eyewitness testimony)

cognitive interview technique

method used to enhance eyewitness memory by using strategies such as reinstating context, encouraging detailed reporting, and recalling events in different orders

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event (so powerful that it can influence later attitudes + behaviors)

source amnesia (misattribution)

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (at the heart of many false memories)

ex. misremembering where you learned a piece of information (thinking you heard it from a friend) when you read it in an article

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

- explained by source amnesia bc it forces us to do our best to make sense of an odd situation

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

conjunctive concept

a class of objects that have two or more features in common

ex. motorcycle (a vehicle that is and has 2 wheels, an engine, and handlebars)

relational concept

a concept defined by the relationship between features of an object or between an object and its surroundings

ex. "under" and "on" to understand directions

disjunctive concept

a concept defined by the presence of at least one of several possible features (either-or concept)

ex. "fruit" is defined as either an apple, banana, or orange. If it's any one of these, it's considered a fruit.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category (often learn concepts through prototypes)

cognitive complexity

the ability to construct a variety of frameworks for viewing an issue

- More complex thinkers can influence others more easily.

- Most people use 5-50 descriptors for someone/concept.

- Technology can make complex thinking harder.

- Used in business for hiring, sales, and pitching.

trial and error

A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem (trying every possible solution)

- time consuming + costly but guarantees results

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

- speedier but more error prone and can lead us astray

Who was Wolfgang Köhler and what was his contribution to psychology?

Psychologist who studied insight learning in chimpanzees; showed that problem-solving can occur suddenly, not just through trial and error

- Chimps stacked boxes to reach bananas, demonstrating sudden understanding.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

ex. person who believes one political party is always right and only pays attention to stories that support that view while ignoring stories that challenge it

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

function fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

- brick test: participants struggle to use a brick in a new way, like propping up a candle instead of just thinking of it as a weight.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

ex. pulling a "push" door handle bc that's ur used to

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

ex. holding onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it

who were Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman and what was their contribution to psychology?

Psychologists who studied heuristics and biases in decision-making, showing how people often rely on mental shortcuts (like availability and representativeness) that can lead to errors.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes (may lead us to ignore other relevant info)

ex. a quiet person is assumed to be a librarian

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind (tend to ignore the base rate - how often it happens or if we can actually think of an example of it)

ex. fear of shark attacks after seeing the news

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

ex. half full vs. half empty

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

ex. placing healthier food options at eye level in a cafeteria, making them more visible and more likely to be chosen

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

covergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Sternberg's Five Components of Creativity

1. Expertise: Knowledge for building ideas.

2. Imaginative Thinking: Seeing things in new ways.

3. Venturesome Personality: Risk-taking and perseverance.

4. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by interest, not rewards.

5. Creative Environment: Supportive surroundings for innovation.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

the three basic building blocks of language are...

1. phonemes

2. morphemes

3. grammar

Phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

ex. /b/ vs. /p/ in "bat" vs. "pat."

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

ex. "un-" + "happy" = "unhappy."

grammar

a system set of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

language's set of rules for deriving meaning from words and sounds

ex. "dogs bark" means dogs make noise

Syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

ex. "I ate the cake" is correct syntax; "Cake the ate I" is not

who was Noam Chomsky and what was his contribution to language development?

Linguist who proposed Universal Grammar—the idea that humans are born with an innate set of grammatical rules common to all languages, enabling natural language learning.