phil cards

Syntax

The grammatical rules of how to form symbols properly in a language; concerned with the arrangement of words in a sentence.

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences; refers to what is represented in a language and conveys ideas.

Functions of Language

Understanding this is essential for reading critically, including Reportative, Evocative, Imperative, and Interrogative.

Reportative Function

Functions reportatively whenever its intention is to describe or report a particular state of affair.

Evaluative

Using words to make some kind of normative judgment.

Emotive

Using words to express emotional or subjective feelings about something.

Interrogative Function

Used to inquire about the way things are or to ask for information.

Imperative Function

Used to direct someone to do something; commands are the most common form.

Evocative Function

Its primary intent is to evoke an image or elicit an emotion from the listeners.

Statement/Proposition/Claims

A sentence that makes a reportative claim, prompting a question of truth or falsehood.

Argument

A set of statements designed to support a conclusion with premises.

Premise

The statement that supports the conclusion of an argument.

Conclusion

The statement that is supported by the premises in an argument.

Standard Form

Listing the conclusion of the argument preceded by the premises, in the order P1, P2, C.

Premise Indicator

Words that precede premises in an argument indicating a supportive statement.

Conclusion Indicator

Words that indicate a statement follows as the conclusion from given premises.

Simple Argument

The most basic form where one premise supports the conclusion.

Independent Premises

Premises that support the conclusion independently of each other.

Dependent Premises

Premises that logically require each other to provide a good reason for the conclusion.

Indirect Premise

A premise that only supports the conclusion indirectly through a sub-conclusion.

Sub-conclusion

A statement that is the conclusion of another premise or set of premises.

Missing Premise

An implicit part of an argument that the speaker has neglected to state explicitly.

Argument Noise

Words, sentences, or phrases that are mixed in an argument but are not part of it.

Logical Strength

The degree to which it would be unlikely for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

Validity

A structural property of an argument where it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

Soundness

An argument that is valid and where each of its premises is true.

Deductive Arguments

Arguments that demonstrate their conclusions with certainty of full validity.

Inductive Arguments

Arguments that intend to persuade us of the likelihood of their conclusions.

SL (Sentence Logic)

Vocabulary for a formal language that represents atomic statements and logical operators.

Atomic Statement

Direct statements containing no logical operators; cannot be broken down further.

Compound Statement

Any statement that consists of one or more logical operators.

Negation (~)

Reverses the truth-value of a statement; true when the statement being negated is false.

Conjunction (&)

A logical operator that is true only when both statements joined are true.

Disjunction (V)

A logical operator that is true if at least one of the statements is true.

Conditional (→)

A logical operator that is false only when the left statement is true and the right is false.

Logical Operator

Words and expressions that assert something about the truth conditions of statements to which they are applied.

Translation Key

Designates an upper-case letter to represent each atomic part of the statement.

Truth Table

Used to analyze the truth or falsity of a statement in every possible Truth Value Assignment.

Truth Value Assignment (TVA)

A particular assignment of truth values to each atomic statement.

Classic Forms

Recognizable patterns to determine validity of arguments without a truth table.

Affirming the Antecedent

Valid form where the first premise is a conditional and the second corresponds to the antecedent.

Denying the Consequent

Valid form where the first premise is a conditional and the second denies the consequent.

Hypothetical Syllogism

Valid form with two conditional premises leading to a conditional conclusion.

Valid Disjunctive Syllogism

Valid form regardless of which disjunct is denied, leading to affirmation of the other.

Affirming the Consequent

Invalid form where the first premise is conditional and the second corresponds to the consequent.

Denying the Antecedent

Invalid form where the first premise is conditional and the second denies the antecedent.

Invalid Disjunctive Syllogism

Invalid form assuming disjunction operates in an exclusive sense.

Categorical Statement

Makes a claim about the relationship between two categories or sets of objects.

Universal Affirmative (A)

Affirms that all members of one category are included in another.

Universal Negative (E)

States that no members of one category are included in another.

Particular Affirmative (I)

Affirms that some members of one category are included in another.

Particular Negative (O)

States that some members of one category are not included in another.

Square of Opposition

Relationships between categorical statements, indicating various logical relations.

Categorical Syllogism

An argument with two premises and a conclusion, each being a categorical statement.

Venn Diagram

A visual tool used to determine the validity or invalidity of categorical arguments.

Strong Statement

Claims something significant; stronger premises lead to weaker conclusions.

Weak Statement

Claims something minor; weaker premises lead to stronger conclusions.

Probability

A numerical measure of the likelihood of an event occurring.

Equiprobable

Events that are equally likely to happen.

Conditional Probability

Probability of an event given that certain information is known.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The fallacy of assuming that past events affect future probabilities in independent events.

Conjunction Fallacy

Mistaken belief that conjunctions are more likely to be true than their individual components.

50-50 Fallacy

calculating probabilities based on a survey of possible outcomes which are not equally likely.

This fallacy occurs when individuals assume that all outcomes have an equal probability of occurring, leading to miscalculations in decision-making based on skewed data.

Poll

Observations of a sample that may form the basis of generalizing inferences.

Sample

The portion of the population being directly observed.

Population

The group to which we are generalizing based on observations.

Margin of Error

Measure describing the accuracy of a poll; indicates how close the sample observation is to the population property.

Confidence Level

Describes the likelihood that the poll accurately reflects the population within the margin of error.

Begging the Question

Using a premise that assumes the truth of the conclusion, restating the conclusion as a premise.

Equivocation

Inference that relies on a repeated word but the meaning of the word is different in each cases.

False Dichotomy

A disjunction that fails to account for alternative possibilities outside the given choices.

Ad Hominem

Attacking a person's character instead of addressing the argument.

Tu Quoque

Accusation of hypocrisy; pointing out a flaw in someone who is making a similar criticism.

Slippery Slope

Asserting that one action will lead to extreme consequences without evidence.

Strawman

Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to something weaker than it actually is to make it easier to attack.

Post Hoc

Erroneously inferring causation based on sequential occurrence.

Confusing Cause and Effect

Incorrectly inferring that one thing causes another when it is the reverse.

Common Cause

Inferring causation when a third factor may be the true cause of both events.

Red Herring

An irrelevant premise designed to distract from the main issue of the argument.

Appeal to (inappropriate) Authority

Asserting something is true simply because an authority figure supports it.

Appeals to Ignorance

Claiming something must be true because there is no known alternative.

Appeals to Anecdotal Evidence

Assuming something is true based on limited observational evidence.

Appeal to Popularity

Accepting something as true solely because it is widely believed.

Appeal to Pity

Making someone feel sorry to influence a belief or argument.

Appeal to Force

Threatening someone to accept a conclusion.

Principle of Charity

Interpreting arguments in their strongest possible form.

Rhetoric

The art of persuasion; includes techniques to present arguments compellingly.

Confidence

Asserting a claim confidently, making it more likely to be accepted as true.

False Confidence

Persuasion technique relying on irrational assertions made with confidence.

Humor

Making argument compelling by evoking laughter, leading to acceptance.

Repetition

Rhetorical technique that involves saying something multiple times to reinforce belief.

Loaded Term

Disguising an evaluative claim as a descriptive claim.

Loaded Questions

Questions that disguise implicit claims.

Misleading Statistics

Taking advantage of challenges people face with numeracy.

Biases

Bundles of predispositions stemming from experiences that influence judgment.

Confirmation Bias

Acceptance of evidence supporting preexisting beliefs more readily than challenging evidence.

Attribute Error

Bias affecting our evaluation of others based on group affiliation.

Implicit Bias

Unconscious biases that affect our thinking contrary to explicit beliefs.

Credibility Excess/Deficit

Imbalances in trust and attention given to someone's claims due to bias.