AP PSYCH UNIT 1

Biological perspective

Explains behavior through brain processes, genetics, and physiological activity.

Evolutionary perspective

Explains behavior as adaptations shaped by natural selection to promote survival.

Psychodynamic perspective

Explains behavior by focusing on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences (Freud).

Behavioral perspective

Studies observable behavior and how it is learned through conditioning

Cognitive perspective

Examines mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Social-cultural perspective

Focuses on how social and cultural environments influence behavior and cognition.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you predicted it all along (“I knew it”).

Overconfidence effect

A cognitive bias where a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is greater than their objective accuracy, often leading to overestimation of one's abilities or knowledge.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors.

Peer-reviewed journals

Academic publications where experts evaluate research before it is published.

Operational definition

A precise definition of variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference

Case study

In-depth study of one individual or small group

Wording effects

How question phrasing influences responses.

Hawthorne effect

When people change behavior because they know they are being observed.

Random sampling (selection)

Every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation using dots to display the values of two variables. It helps to visualize the correlation between them.

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa. The correlation coefficient is positive and ranges from 0 to +1.

Negative correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other. The correlation coefficient is negative and ranges from -1 to 0.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship when none exists.

Regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to move toward the average over time.

Experiment

A method where researchers manipulate variables to determine cause-and-effect

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Placebo effect

Improvement due to belief in treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Independent variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome measured in the experiment.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the IV that may affect the results.

Quantitative research

Uses numerical data and statistics.

Qualitative research

Uses non-numerical data (interviews, observations)

Informed consent

Participants are told enough to decide whether to participatein a study, including potential risks and benefits.

Informed assent

Agreement from minors to participate.

Confidentiality

Keeping participant information private.

Debriefing

Explaining the study after participation, especially if deception was used.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews research for ethical standards.

Measures of central tendency

Statistical measures that describe the center of a data set, including mean, median, and mode.

Mean

Average of all scores

Median

Middle score when ordered.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score.

Measures of variation

Describe spread of data.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores.

Standard deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean.

Effect size

Measure of the strength of a relationship or difference.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that results are not due to chance (usually p < .05).

Meta-analysis

Combines results of multiple studies to draw overall conclusions. It enhances the power of statistical analysis and can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research topic.