AP Psychology Unit 4 Part 1 - Social Pyschology

social psychology

scientific study of how social environments are influenced by the actual/implied presence of other people

attributions

explains how individuals interpret and assign causes to behaviors/events —> either internal (disposition) or external (environment)

dispositional attributions

cognitive bias in psychology where an individual assigns the cause of a person’s behavior to internal characteristics

situational attributions

personal explains behavior, events, or physical based on external circumstances

fundamental attribution error

tendency for observers, when analyzing other’s behaviors, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor/observer bias

tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes

self-serving bias

cognitive tendency to attribute personal successes to internal traits while blaming others, external factors, for failure

prejudice

an unjustifiable and unusually negative attitude toward a group and its members; generally involves negative emotions

stereotype

generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group/its members

implicit attitudes

automatic unconscious evaluations or feelings toward people (from past experiences)

just-world phenomenon

cognitive bias referring to the tendency for people to believe that the world is fundamentally fair

out-group homogeneity bias

tendency to view people outside one’s own group negatively, with suspicion

in-group bias

tendency to favor our own group

ethnocentrism

tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to judge other cultures on one’s own standards

belief perseverance

cognitive bias where individuals cling to initial beliefs even after receiving evidence that contradicts it

confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, favor recall information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, etc.

persuasion

study of how communication, reasoning, emotional appeals are used to influence attitudes

foot-in-the-door technique

ask for something small first, then slowly increase

door-in-the-face technique

ask for something big that they’ll turn down for sure, then make your actual request so it seems more reasonable

cognitive dissonance

tendency to act to reduce their discomfort we feel when our thoughts contradict our actions/beliefs

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

explains how persuasion occurs through two distinct routes based on motivation ability to process information

central route persuasion

logic-driven process that convinces people by using data, facts, and arguments

peripheral route persuasion

method of attitude change relying on superficial clues rather than facts or logical arguments

halo effect

influenced by feelings about a person or thing

norms

society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior; prescribe “proper” behavior

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

social influence theory

examine how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, behaviors are shaped by social interactions, pressures, etc.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

obedience

complying with an order or a command

social faciliation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple of well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

concept that explains why people are less likely to help someone in need when others are present

collectivism

cultural value that prioritizes the needs, goals, and harmony of a group over individual’s personal desires

individualism

cultural value that prioritizes personal goals, autonomy, self-expression, and independence

multiculturalism

studies how cultures shape human behavior, thoughts, behaviors

mere exposure effect

tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

prosocial behavior

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

bystander effect

any action intended to help others, fostering positive social engagement

situational variables

external factors (environment, context) that influence a person’s behavior

attentional variables

factors that determine how we focus mental resources

social exchange theory (social debt)

theory that our social behavior is our exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

social traps

situation in which 2 parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

self-fulfilling prophecy

belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

false consensus effect

cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which their own opinions are normal/typical

social comparison

tendency for people to evaluate their own abilities by comparing themselves to others

upward social comparison

occurs when you compare yourself to someone perceived as better than you

downward social comparison

defense mechanism where you compare yourself to someone less fortunate to make yourself feel better

relative deprivation

perception that you are worse off than the people you compare yourself to