Psychology: Learning, Social Behavior, and Disorders Overview

What is positive reinforcement?

The addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What is negative reinforcement?

The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What is the partial-reinforcement extinction effect?

The behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than continuous reinforcement.

What conditions make punishment effective?

Punishment must be reasonable, unpleasant, applied immediately, and clearly connected to the unwanted behavior.

Why is positive punishment often ineffective?

It may be wrongly applied, lead to negative emotions, and fail to offset the reinforcing aspects of the undesired behavior.

What is behavior modification?

The use of operant conditioning techniques to replace unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors.

What are token economies?

Systems where individuals earn tokens for completing tasks and lose tokens for undesirable behavior.

How does biology constrain reinforcement?

Some animal behaviors are hardwired, making it difficult to learn behaviors that counter evolutionary adaptations.

What is observational learning?

The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior.

What was the focus of Bandura's Bobo doll study?

It demonstrated that children who observed aggression were more likely to play aggressively.

What is modeling in the context of learning?

The imitation of behavior through observational learning, often influenced by the attractiveness or status of the model.

What is vicarious conditioning?

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action.

What are personal attributions?

Explanations for events or actions that attribute outcomes to a person's traits.

What are situational attributions?

Explanations for events or actions that consider the context or situation as the cause.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to attribute others' failures to their character while attributing our own failures to situational factors.

What is stereotype maintenance?

The tendency to maintain stereotypes even when they are not consciously recognized.

What are the negative effects of stereotypes?

They can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and ingroup/outgroup bias.

What is modern racism?

Subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of overtly racist beliefs.

What are attitudes in psychology?

People's evaluations of objects, events, or ideas that can be simple or complex.

What is cognitive dissonance?

An uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and behavior.

What is postdecisional dissonance?

Cognitive dissonance that arises when choosing between options that have positive attitudes associated with them.

What is persuasion?

The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message.

What are the two routes of persuasion in the elaboration likelihood model?

Central route (high elaboration) and peripheral route (minimal processing).

What factors affect the persuasiveness of a message?

The source, the content, and the receiver of the message.

What is social facilitation?

The enhancement of performance when in the presence of others.

Define social loafing.

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

What is deindividuation?

A state of reduced individuality and self-awareness that can occur in group settings.

What study is associated with deindividuation?

The Stanford prison study, where participants quickly adopted their assigned roles.

What is the risky-shift effect?

The phenomenon where group discussions lead to riskier decisions than individuals would make alone.

Define group polarization.

The tendency for group discussion to amplify opinions, making them more extreme.

What is groupthink?

A situation where group members suppress dissenting opinions to maintain group harmony.

What conditions typically lead to groupthink?

Intense pressure, external threats, and a biased direction.

What is conformity?

The alteration of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of others.

Differentiate between normative and informational influence.

Normative influence is conforming to be liked, while informational influence is conforming because the group provides information about the right way to act.

What was Solomon Asch's study on conformity about?

Participants conformed to incorrect answers given by actors in a line-matching task to avoid looking foolish.

What are social norms?

Expected standards of conduct that influence behavior in specific situations.

What is compliance in social psychology?

The tendency to agree to requests made by others.

Explain the foot-in-the-door technique.

A compliance strategy where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later.

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

A compliance strategy where refusing a large request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a smaller request.

Define lowballing.

A tactic where a person agrees to a deal and then is asked to pay more, often complying due to initial commitment.

What is obedience in psychology?

Complying with orders given by an authority figure.

What did Milgram's experiment on obedience demonstrate?

That a significant percentage of participants would obey authority figures even when asked to perform harmful actions.

What is aggression?

Any act intended to inflict harm upon another person.

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

The theory that frustration increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Define prosocial behavior.

Actions intended to benefit others, such as helping or doing favors.

What is altruism?

Helping others without expecting any reward in return.

What is the bystander intervention effect?

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

What factors influence the decision to help in an emergency?

Personal risk of harm and potential benefits forgone by helping.

What role does proximity play in relationships?

Proximity refers to how often individuals are together, influencing relationship formation.

What is passionate love?

A type of romantic relationship characterized by intense longing and sexual desire.

Define companionate love.

A type of romantic relationship marked by strong commitment and caring for a partner.

What are the four tendencies that lead to relationship discord according to Gottman?

Being overly critical, holding contempt, being defensive, and mentally withdrawing.

What is psychopathology?

Disruption of daily functioning due to emotional, thought, or behavioral issues.

What is the most common psychological disorder in adults?

Anxiety disorders.

What are the four criteria for determining psychological disorders?

Deviation from cultural norms, maladaptiveness, personal distress, and discomfort to others.

What does the Diathesis-Stress Model explain?

It explains that a disorder is triggered by stress in individuals with an underlying vulnerability (diathesis).

What are the three components of the Biopsychosocial Approach?

Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural factors.

What does the Biological component of the Biopsychosocial Approach include?

Brain function, neurotransmitter imbalances, and genetics.

What does the Psychological component of the Biopsychosocial Approach encompass?

Thoughts, emotions, personality, and learned experiences.

What does the Sociocultural component of the Biopsychosocial Approach involve?

Family relations, socioeconomic status (SES), and cultural factors.

How do the three factors in the Biopsychosocial Approach interact?

They interact to influence disordered thoughts, emotions, and/or behaviors.

What is the DSM used for?

It is used to diagnose and identify different psychological disorders.

What characterizes anxiety disorders?

Excessive fear in the absence of danger.

What is a common misconception about anxiety?

That anxiety is always bad; chronic anxiety without cause is what is abnormal.

What are some physical ailments caused by chronic anxiety?

Impaired attention span, trouble sleeping, hypertension, headaches, intestinal problems, and potential brain damage.

How is the development of anxiety disorders best explained?

Through the Biopsychosocial Approach.

What is an example of a learned response in anxiety disorders?

Little Albert learning to be afraid of white furry objects.

What characterizes Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

Frequent intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and compulsive actions (compulsions).

What are obsessions in OCD?

Recurrent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts or urges that increase anxiety.

What are compulsions in OCD?

Particular acts that a person feels driven to perform repeatedly to reduce anxiety.

Are people with OCD aware of their obsessions and compulsions?

Yes, they are aware that their thoughts and actions are irrational but feel unable to stop.

What is the cycle of developing OCD?

Anxiety leads to a compulsion, which provides relief, followed by an obsession, and then the cycle repeats.

What is an example of an obsession in OCD?

Fear of contamination.

What is an example of a compulsion in OCD?

Washing hands repeatedly.

What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

A disorder resulting from experiencing or witnessing life-threatening events or sexual violations, characterized by negative reactions long after the danger has passed.

What are common symptoms of PTSD?

Tension, anxiety, health problems, memory, and attention problems.

List examples of events that can lead to PTSD.

Serious accidents, sexual assault or rape, fighting in active combat, surviving a natural disaster.

What characterizes Major Depressive Disorder?

Extremely depressed mood or loss of interest in pleasurable activities lasting for two weeks or more, along with other symptoms like changes in weight or sleep.

What is Persistent Depressive Disorder?

A mild or moderate depressed mood most days for at least two years.

What biological factors contribute to the development of Depressive Disorders?

Genetic components, neurotransmitter imbalances, and damage to the left prefrontal cortex.

What psychological factors can influence Depressive Disorders?

Quality of relationships, negative self-perception (Cognitive triad), learned helplessness, and social norms related to gender.

What distinguishes Bipolar I Disorder from Bipolar II Disorder?

Bipolar I Disorder includes extremely elevated moods (mania) lasting at least one week, while Bipolar II Disorder involves alternating between mildly elevated mood (hypomania) and extremely depressed mood.

What are the symptoms of Bipolar I Disorder?

Persistently elevated mood, increased activity, diminished need for sleep, grandiose ideas, racing thoughts, and extreme distractibility.

What is a key requirement for diagnosing Bipolar II Disorder?

At least one episode of major depression is required.

What is schizophrenia?

A mental disorder characterized by extreme alterations in thought, perception, and consciousness, often resulting in psychosis.

What are the five major symptoms of schizophrenia according to the DSM-5?

Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, and negative symptoms.

What types of delusions are common in schizophrenia?

Persecution, referential, grandiose, identity, guilt, and control delusions.

What are some examples of hallucinations experienced in schizophrenia?

Visual, auditory, olfactory, and bodily hallucinations.

What is meant by disorganized speech in schizophrenia?

Speech that is incoherent, fails to follow a normal conversational structure, and may include loosening of associations or clang associations.

What are the three clusters of Personality Disorders?

Cluster A (Odd or Eccentric Behavior), Cluster B (Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behavior), and Cluster C (Anxious or Fearful Behavior).

What are the characteristics of Borderline Personality Disorder?

Disturbances in identity, emotional states, and impulse control, including lack of a sense of self, emotional instability, and impulsivity.

What is the relationship between trauma and Borderline Personality Disorder?

There is a strong relationship between borderline personality and experiences of trauma or abuse.

What is the diathesis-stress model in relation to schizophrenia?

It suggests that schizophrenia arises from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental stressors.

What are negative symptoms in schizophrenia?

Deficits in functioning such as apathy, lack of emotion, slowed speech, and reduced initiation of behavior.

What is the significance of genetics in the development of Bipolar Disorder?

There is a very strong genetic component, with several genes involved, and disorders tend to be more severe and appear at younger ages in successive generations.