GOVT 2747 Final ExamMM!

How did the mandate system impact Iraq & Jordan from WWI through independence? When/how did independence happen?

IRAQ

• Context: lack of nat identity; 3 provinces under Ott Empire- decentralized + tribal autonomy —> 1920 uprisings against UK

  • Relig split: Jews, Christians, Shi’a majority would become ruled by Sunni minority

• UK mandate post-WWI (San Remo, Sykes-Picot)

• UK adopts indirect rule through King Faysal (son of Sharif Husayn) after 1920 revolts (brutally crushed by milit)

  • Lacked legitimacy among Kurds, Shi’as, native Iraqis - “government by aircraft”

  • Rapid, artificial institution-building: ed, military, bureaucracy nonexistent

• Independence 1932- limited like Egypt

  • Poli instability into WWII- 7 milit coups

  • Reoccupation during WWII until 1945 by UK to protect interests when nationalist Rashid Ali comes to power - increasing nationalist resentment, govt lacked legitimacy

JORDAN

• Sparsely populated, decentralized buffer state - trade interests, pro-British border on Palestine, etc.

• UK mandate- indirect rule through King Abdullah I

• Indep 1946

BIG PICTURE

• Artificial national cohesion; govt lacked legitimacy among ppl

• Indirect rule- some ability to create institutions

• Interests: oil, India

How did the French mandate system impact Syrian politics?

• After routing King Faysal’s Arab Kingdom

• + Lebanon, French mandates

  • Religion: “guardian” of Maronite Christians

  • Balance of power: UK in Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, Iraq / economic interests

• BIG PICTURE: to maintain control- institutionalizing fractured identity (relig, ethnic, regional); brutally crushing opposition/barring self-governance (more so than UK). Direct rule

  • Druze + Alawites given separate administrative states

  • Syrian Revolt (1925-27): similar tribal uprisings to UK in Iraq + likewise brutally crushed by milit bombings, but did not result in greater autonomy

  • Government

    • France held veto power over nominal legislature; poli activity suspended during WWII

  • Independence

    • France eventually withdraws 1946, after reneging on promises of indep post-WWII —> violent revolts

  • Impacts: no institutions, governing class developed —> later political instability

What was early Egyptian independence like post-1919 Revolution? What factors led to rising nationalism and the coup of 1952?

• 1922 “independence”: UK reserves right to foreign defense, protect foreign interests, secure British empire communications, future of Sudan

  • King Fuad extensive powers to dismiss parliament, veto bills

• 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty- greater autonomy, but widespread demonstrations against lack of complete independence + reoccupation during WWII

• Economic issues: growing population + wealth disparity- landless peasants, migrant workers

• King Faruq’s declining legitimacy

  • Impious gambler - embodied corruption of govt. Pitted against ISLAM

• Rise of militant nationalists + Muslim Brotherhood as alternative to Wafd

  • Growing role of muslim brotherhood for social programming (soup kitchens, urban laborers, spirituality)

    • Islam-oriented social justice + reform; rather than Western intrusion

Egyptian Coup of 1952

• Black Sunday Cairo riots 1952- protesting Egyptian elites, Western interference

• Bloodless coup headed by Colonel Gamal Abd al-Nasser ; Free Officers: lower-middle class, rural backgrounds

  • Muhammad Naguib becomes PM

  • Revolutionary Command Council

    • Lacked visionary platform- more so removal of foreign influence, social justice, democracy

  • Banning opposition poli parties- suppressing Muslim Brotherhood, Communists/labor parties

What was the Suez Canal crisis, and what was its significance?

• Nasser signs SU arms deal, refuses to join Baghdad Pact to contain USSR in mid-e

  • Retaliation: US/UK back out of deal to finance Aswan High Dam

• Nasser nationalizes Suez Canal 1956

  • Nationalism/pan-Arabism

  • Fund dam construction

• UK/France/Israel joint milit action- financial interests, + to curb Nasser’s influence across Arab world (radio broadcasts)

• Ultimately successful- US/USSR pressed for withdrawal

Impact:

• Nasser’s success as anti-imperialist symbol domestically + in Arab world

How did Nasser’s vision of Arab unity play out? Impact on regional politics?

• Rejected westernization of interwar years under Wafd

  • Constit rewritten, Egypt proclaimed an Arab country

• Voice of the Arabs radio

• United Arab Republic (1958)- w Syria; but Syrian pushback re: autonomy —> dissolved 1961

  • Radio warsw Saudi Arabia, Jordan- wary of Egyptian influence

How did Nasser’s vision of Arab socialism play out? How effective?

• Mass nationalization of industry

  • Stunted competition/economic growth; controlled by bureaucracy

• Land redistribution

  • But often not enough for subsistence

• Minimum wage, retirement pensions, healthcare

• Women’s suffrage

• Free ed- but overcrowded, and grads struggled to find employment

• Heavily fused w Islamism

• overall: social programs lacked adequate revenue; unrealistic goals “needles to rockets”

  • Failed to match w political justice- single-party (arab socialist union), authoritarian

Nasserism primary sources STAR

• Nasser Arab Socialism speech (1964)

  • Emphasizes Assembly, elected by the “will of the people”, painted as social revolution- umm Socialist Union only party allowed- context abt repressing Muslim Brotherhood etc.

  • Elimination of imperialism, feudalism- more success (Suez Canal, land reform)

  • Social justice: less so de facto due to poli repression, economic overreach in long run

• Nasser speech defending Suez Canal nationalization

  • Repeatedly cites imperialism, sovereignty, dignity

    • Atlantic Charter (1941)- much like Wilson’s 14 points inspired Arab indep, self-determination after Otts

  • Acknowledging role of Israel- France/UK/US interests aligned w Israel, Egyptian strength a regional threat (Arab nationalism!)

    • Not just Egyptian nationalism, but Arab as well

      • Proclaims war over Suez Canal is a symbolic war against the entire Arab world

        • Equating Egypt/Arab nation was.. not popular among other Arab countries

How did the Cold War impact Turkey/Iran post-WWII? Why?

• Bordering USSR- special attention

• Truman Doctrine- containment in Mid-E

• Alliance w US via Baghdad Pact - US replaces UK as primary foreign power in Mid-E

  • Nationalist criticism

How did the transfer of power from Inonu to the Democratic Party go? Describe the Democrat Party’s regime

• Peaceful transfer of power from RPP as they gained parli votes; 1950-60

• Masses dissatisfied w secularization, state capitalism (etatism) and slow econ growth alongside pop boom

  • Reversed secularization- built mosques, public calls to prayer

  • Increased privatization

    • Alongside ag infrastructure - did raise quality of life

• But heavy debt to finance infrastructure + econ downturn mid-50s brought resurgence of protests, support for army as protector of Ataturk’s legacy —> coup of 1960, army takes control before actually returning to civilians

Describe Turkey’s political landscape following the Democrat regime

• Increasingly populated, pluralist society- socialist, nationalist, Islamist etc. —> legislative paralysis, frequent protests

  • US tacitly supported suppression of leftist parties in particular

• Coup in 1971

• Rising National Salvation Party leads Islamic revival movement, mass demonstrations in 1980 calling for return to Shari’ah

  • Milit coup again intervenes: cracks down on both Salvation Party + leftists- any extremists

• Big picture: yes multi-party democracy, milit always returned power, but that was also Turkey’s weakness- pluralistic, leg deadlock, failure to address root econ/ social changes

How was Muhammed Reza Shah viewed in Iran post-WWII? What led to increasing nationalism?

• Lacked popular legitimacy

• Iranian masses resentful against both foreign interference + govt centralization under Reza Pahlavi

  • Russian-UK invasion 1914, occupation 1941, UK-owned oil/foreigners

    • AIOC symbolic of foreign interference- UK huge infrastructure projects, company towns

  • Tudeh Party (urban workers, socialist)

  • Muhammed Mossadiq emerges as leader of National Front coalition- nationalist reformists calling for constit limits on Shah (revive 1906 constit), nationalization of oil industry

    • Increasingly dominates Majlis

What was the Iranian oil nationalization crisis?

• 1951: Majlis passes leg to nationalize UK-dominated Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), and appoint Mossadiq PM

Describe Mossadiq’s tenure

• Global boycott of Iranian oil, mass layoffs —> financial crisis, 20,000 Iranians laid off

• Rapid reforms: land reform, secularization- alienated traditional elites in National Front

• Competing w Tudeh party for power

1953 Iran coup- now what happened?

• US fears regional power vacuum/socialism from Mossadiq + Tudeh

  • Operation AJAX: huge media propaganda, misinformation

    • staged protests, distributed pamphlets, painted Mossadiq as anti-religious (ex fake bombing of cleric’s home)

    • bribes, paid demonstrators

• Shah returns, US-aligned

How did Muhammed Reza Shah consolidate royal dictatorship after 1953?

• Continued financial/milit dependence on US

• SAVAK secret surveillance agency (backed by US, might I add): routed out Tudeh, National Front

• White Revolution (1963)

  • Limited reform from above, viewed more as attempt to appease masses

  • Land reform, literacy, industrial investments

    • Often insufficient, did not close wealth gaps/increase Shah’s mass legitimacy

• Ayatollah Khomeini launches religious protests to Shah + US interference 1963 —> exiled

  • Increasing guerilla terrorism 1970s

What explains the different postwar trajectories of Iran and Turkey?

• Lowk similar to what made the reforms successful or not earlier

Turkey

• Limited foreign interference

• Ataturk + Inonu already built a successful base of reforms/democratic institutions

• Democratic system inefficient, but was an outlet for dissent

and her friend Iran

• Heavy US reliance

• Reza Pahlavi’s reforms already weak, given the background of. Iran

• Strong ulama continued to resist change/reform under Mossadiq

• No outlet for dissent (SAVAK) —> riots bro

Iran post-WWII primary sources

• Mossadeq speech on AIOC nationalization (1951)

  • Self-determination, “world developments”- hypocrisy of UK

  • Parallels w Nasser’s speech on Suez nationalization

• “The CIA Looks Back at the 1953 Coup in Iran”

  • Basically confirms facts- still kept DL by CIA though, only cuz NYT acquired files not intended for public release

    • Many files destroyed; did not acknowledge role

  • “Geostrategic” primary motivations- containment of Tudeh, Cold War

  • falsified propaganda against Mossadiq

• George McGhee (former US ambassador to Turkey)

  • Mass resentment against US interference- Iranians were aware

    • Counterproductive: Fueled rise of Islamism, Islamic Revolution 1979 under Ayatollah Khomeini

What triggered the 1967 war? Tf happened?

• Context: skirmishes along Israeli/Jordan-Syrian border; Arab nations bitter over 1948 war, Suez War in 1956

• USSR/Syrian false intelligence that Israel preparing attack —> Nasser preemptive invasion of Sinai peninsula, orders UN troops to evacuate, blockades straits of tiran

• Unleashes massive anti-Israeli protests across Arab nations; Syria, Jordan join

• Israeli counter-attack —> not only retakes Sinai, also occupies Golan Heights, Gaza, West Bank

What were the impacts of the 1967 war socially, politically, and religiously?

• Military/territorial losses for all three nations; over 10,000 Arabs killed

  • Suez Canal closed to shipping; tourism tanks —> lost revenue

• Refugee crisis

• Arab unity loses legitimacy - symbolic defeat

  • Literature, mass culture reflects lost generation, searching for new identity

  • Disillusionment with existing regimes

  • Fuels rising Islamic resurgence against secular pan-Arabism - ex. Muslim brotherhood, but also more extremist groups

• Continued war of attrition between Egypt/Israel

• Palestinian Liberation Organization consolidates

What explains Nasser’s continued stability/popularity despite the 1967 War?

• Egypt’s first native leader

• Charismatic, humble- contrast w King Faruq

• Staunch nationalist, anti-imperialist

• Social welfare

• Elevated Egypt’s regional/international role

1967 War primary source - consider going more in depth?

• Nizar Qabbani Poem on 1967 defeat 

  • Qabbani: both a writer + diplomat 

  • Audience: popular in streets

  • “Are we truly “a nation chosen by God”?” 

    • Defeatism, disillusionment, search for a new generation and ideology

  • “We are a hopeless cause”

  • Devoid of spirit