Psychology - Cognitive Approach Paper 1 Key Terms

IBDP Cognitive Approach Paper 1 Key Terms

Anchoring bias

This is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions. During decision-making, this occurs when a person uses an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments.

Classical conditioning

It is a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). When this happens consistently over time, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus. When the previously neutral stimulus is presented, there is a conditioned response (CR), as if the UCS were presented. This was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.

Cognitive load theory

This theory states that the human brain can only process a limited amount of new information at one time because our working memory has a strict capacity. Developed by John Sweller, the theory explains that if learning materials are too complex, unorganized, or full of distractions, the brain suffers from cognitive overload and fails to store the knowledge into long-term memory. Effective teaching aims to minimize mental clutter so the brain can focus entirely on processing the actual lesson.

Cognitive models

Cognitive models simplify complex concepts or systems into visual or verbal representations, aiming to simplify behavior and provide researchers with a foundation for conducting research. Rather than looking at physical brain structures, these models use a series of steps—much like a computer flowchart—to show how we take in sensory inputs, store them, and produce behavioral outputs. Common examples, like the multi-store model of memory, help researchers predict how humans remember, make decisions, and solve problems.

Confirmation bias

This is our tendency to focus on and give greater credibility to information that fits with our existing beliefs. It involves several processes that protect the individual from the discomfort of violating one's beliefs. For example, a person convinced of a specific political viewpoint will readily believe matching headlines while automatically dismissing opposing articles as fake or biased.

Dual processing theory

This theory explains two systems people use when processing information: system one and system two. Depending on which system we use can affect our decision making. System 1 processing is intuitive (automatic), fast, unconscious, and based on experiences. System 2 processing is rational (controlled), slow, conscious, and based on consequences.

Operant conditioning

_________ is a learning process where behaviours are shaped, altered, or maintained by their immediate consequences. Formulated by B.F. Skinner, the theory states that actions followed by reinforcement (rewards) are more likely to be repeated, while actions followed by punishment (negative outcomes) are likely to stop. For example, a dog learns to sit because it receives a treat, while an employee works hard to earn a performance bonus.

Schema theory

____ are mental representations based on prior experience and knowledge. They help us to predict what to expect based on what has happened before. They organise our knowledge, assist recall, guide our behaviour, and help us make sense of current experiences. These cognitive structures are built from past experiences and act as shortcuts, allowing us to quickly process new information by fitting it into existing categories. While schemas make thinking highly efficient, they can also cause us to misremember details or rely on stereotypes when new information contradicts our expectations.

Selective exposure

This is a type of anchoring bias. It is where people focus on information in their environment that is congruent with and confirms their current attitudes. For example, if I am against veganism, I don't try a vegan dish.

Selective perception

This is a type of anchoring bias. It is when people perceive a situation through the filter of their existing beliefs or expectations. For example, if a strong student says something incorrectly, the teacher might assume that this was a sign of his risk-taking, not that they were unprepared for class.

Selective retention

People are more likely to remember information that is consistent with their interests, values, and beliefs than those that are in contrast with their values and beliefs.