SOC 101 - Intro to Sociology

sociology

study of human behavior and how societies are organized

structure

social norms and how society is organized

agency

free will and autonomy

structural functionalism

social institutions are important for social stability

conflict theory

society consists of groups with different interests (inequality)

symbolic interactionism

focuses on meaning people derive from social interaction

sociological imagination

connection between personal troubles and public issues

macrosociological theory

focuses on large-scale structures in society (institutions)

microsociological theory

focuses on small-scale interactions in society (conversations)

Emilie Durkheim

structural functionalist; social order results from shared values and norms

Karl Marx

conflict theorist: inequality and class conflict stems from capitalism

Max Weber

symbolic interactionism; society is shaped by ideas, values, and meaning

C. Wright Mills

sociological imagination; linking personal problems to larger social forces

social darwinism

the application of the theory of natural selection to human societies, arguing that "survival of the fittest" governs social hierarchies, business, and international relations

positivism

authentic knowledge is derived solely from sensory experience, empirical observation, and logical analysis

quantitative research

objective, data-driven, research, generalizable

qualitative research

subjective, personal, social change, descriptive

scientific method

• identify a problem

• conduct a literature review

• form a hypothesis

• choose a research design or method

• collect and analyze data

• disseminate findings

data collection methods

ethnography, observation, interviews, surveys

ethical measures

informed consent, confidentiality, voluntary participation, do no harm, justice

literature review

a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic

operational defintion

a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement

correlation

a relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal

causation

a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other

validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring

reliability

the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers

independent variable

the variable that is being manipulated

dependent variable

the variable that is being measured

institutional review board (IRB)

a group of scholars who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects

culture

the entire way of life of a group of people

ethnocentrism

judging other cultures solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture, often leading to feelings of superiority or seeing others lifestyles as inferior

cultural relativism

the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one’s own culture

values

ideas about what is right or wrong

norms

rules or guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable

sanction

positive or negative reactions to people following or disobeying norms

social control

the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion

hegemony

social control; ideas of the dominant group are accepted by all

social stratification

the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy

social inequality

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige

socioeconomic status

a measure of an individual’s place within a social class system

intersectionality

a concept that identifies how different categories of inequality (race, class, gender, etc.) intersect to shape the lives of individuals and groups

social reproduction

the tendency of social classes to remain relatively stable as class status is passed down from one generation to the next

social mobility

the movement of individuals or groups between social classes

socially constructed race

dynamic categories and meanings around race (not biology)

racial formation

process by which race is created, shaped, and transformed by larger forces like government policies, economic systems, and cultural ideas

racial projects

actions, policies, or ideas that can influence how resources are distributed and can reinforce inequality

race

a socially defined category based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people

ethnicity

a socially defined category based on a common language, religion, nationality, history, etc.

minority group

a social group that is systematically denied the same access to power and resources available to society’s dominant groups though its members are not necessarily fewer in number than the dominant groups

racism

claimed superiority of one racial or ethnic group; used to justify inequality

prejudice

an idea about the characteristics of a group that is applied to all members of that group

discrimination

unequal treatment of individuals based on their racial background

privilege

unearned advantage accorded to members of dominant social groups

race consciousness

an ideology that acknowledges race as a powerful social construct that shapes our individual and social experiences

cultural appropration

the adoption of cultural elements belonging to an oppressed group by members of a dominant group, often without permission

reverse racism

the claim by whites that they suffer discrimination based upon their race and experience social disadvantages

critical race theory

the study of relationships among race, racism, and power

passing

presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group to which you belong

double-consciousness

divided identity experienced by Black people in the US (W.E.B. DuBois)

genocide

the deliberate and systematic extermination of a racial, ethnic, national, or cultural group

segregation

the physical and legal separation of groups by race or ethnicity

assimilation

minority groups being absorbed into the mainstream or dominant group (making society more homogeneous)

pluralism

encouraging racial and ethnic variation and acceptance within a society

sex

male or female (based on biological factors)

gender

male or female physical, behavioral, and personality traits

gender identity

an individual’s self-definition or sense of gender

cisgender

gender identity aligns with sex assigned at birth

transgender

gender identity does not align with sex assigned at birth

gender constructionism

the theory that gender characteristics, roles, and behaviors are shaped by cultural, social, and historical contexts (no biological basis)

gender essentialism

gender roles have a genetic or biological origin and cannot be changed

gender binary

classification with only two distinct and opposite gender categories