DP2 Human Relationships Final Quizlet!

prosocial behavior

This is a category of desirable behavior that benefits other humans.

Altruism

This is a type of prosocial behaviour with unselfish concern for the welfare of others.

kin selection theory

This theory predicts that the degree of altruism depends on the number of genes shared by individuals (and thus is ultimately selfish).

Hamilton's Formula

A formula based on evolutionary theory that helping occurs when R (genetic relatedness) x B (Benefit) > C (Cost)

selfish gene theory

A gene-focused theory of evolution proposed by Richard Dawkins: the idea that a human is a means of perpetuating the survival of genes. The gene is not actually selfish, but evolution proceeds as if the gene were selfishly trying to perpetuate itself.

inclusive fitness

an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival

empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

negative state relief model

An egoistic theory proposed by Cialdini et al. (1982) that claim that helping can serve as a secondary reinforcement that will relieve negative moods such as sadness.

emic approach

A research approach to studying behaviors from within a culture

etic approach

A research approach to studying behavior from outside the culture and examining similarities and differences across cultures.

Social Identity Theory

A theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison and leads to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. It can lead to discrimination but also perhaps explain altruism and by-standerism.

salience

An individual's belief that an issue is important or relevant to him or her. This is an element that can primed.

bystander intervention programs

programs that educate students about things like sexual assault and teach them how to spot likely incidents and safely intervene

Kitty Genovese Case

The murder of a woman witnessed by scores of people which led to the investigation of the bystander effect

diffusion of responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

social proof

The tendency people have to behave in a particular way because others are doing so, using others for informative social influence.

normative social influence

Influence on behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval by fitting into the group.

informative social influence

Influence on behavior resulting from using surrounding human behavior as information to help one decide what to do.

arousal-cost reward model

The model that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm

bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

group inhibition

When there is ambiguity in how to interpret a situation, we look to see how others are responding before jumping into action.

mesolimbic reward pathway

Dopaminergic pathway in the brain including the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the medial forebrain bundle. This pathway is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, so is involved in drug addiction but also attraction.

intrasexual selection

A direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually males) for mates of the opposite sex.

intersexual selection

Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex; also called mate choice.

parental investment theory

The theory that gender differences in mating preferences and behavior are based on the different amounts of time and effort each gender must invest in child-rearing

Pathogen Stress Theory

An evolutionary theory of attraction where the presence of pathogens and diseases encountered by our species shaped the development of human's values and qualities and can affect who they are attracted to in sexual selection.

facial symmetry

A possible biological factor in attraction which is the degree to which each side of your face precisely matches the other.

Similarity Attraction Model

This model claims we are attracted to others who resemble ourselves, and we perceive people more positively if we believe that they share our attitudes to important issues. This includes age, religion, social class, cultural background, personality, education, and attitudes.

Complementarity Theory

A theory of relationships that states that a relationship becomes stronger as the two people's personality needs mesh; one personality can make up for what is lacking or missing in the other personality (thus the opposite of the similarity attraction model)

Internal Working Model (Bowlby)

This model suggests that mental representation of relationships between the child and caregiver can guide children's interactions with people in childhood and builds the foundation for future relationships.

Reinforcement Affect Model

The model that we like people with whom we associate positive feelings and dislike those with whom we associate negative feelings.

Role of Self-Esteem

Kiesler and Baral's experiment where they lied about performance on an IQ test to two groups of men and found that it influenced who they were attracted to.

halo effect

The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure and contact, which can be tied to attraction.

Gottman's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

1. Criticism

2. Contempt

3. Defensiveness

4. Stonewalling

microexpressions

Small, brief facial movements that signal emotional experiences such as contempt or disgust, even in people who have been trained to hide their emotions.

relationship-enhancing communication

Attribution Theory explanation where the partner explains negative behaviors of the other romantic partner as situational and not dispostional.

distress-maintaining communication

Attribution Theory explanation where the partner explains negative behaviors of the other romantic partner as dispositional and not situational.

Social Penetration Theory

A theory suggesting that disclosures in a relationship become increasingly intimate as the relationship develops

Orientation, Exploratory, Affective, Stable

Four Phases of Social Penetration Theory

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is a cognitive exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs; explains how relationships can end when the costs exceed the benefits, but does a bad job of explaining altruism.

Equity Theory

A relationship theory that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced by both parties are roughly equal.

Boredom, Changes, Rule Breaking

3 major reasons for the end of a relationship

Fatal Attraction Theory

The same trait that initially caused attraction ultimately leads to the dissolution of the relationship.

bidirectional ambiguity

When there is a correlation between two variables and there is uncertainty about which variable is influencing which, which is especially true about the reasons for the end of a relationship.

retrospective

One of the problems of research on relationships is that often they look backward over a period of time.

peak end rule

That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g. pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.

Prisoner's Dilemma

A game theory in which pursuing dominant strategies results in noncooperation that leaves everyone worse off

evolutionary stable strategy

A strategy that, once adopted, will use natural selective pressure such as greed to prevent alternate strategies from arising, often leading to non-cooperation.

Social Comparison

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others, especially in terms of cooperation and competition.

free rider effect

People lower their effort at the expense of their fellow group members when they see others working hard.

sucker effect

People lower their effort because of the feeling that others are free riding.

social loafing

The tendency for people to put less effort into a task when working with others on that task.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness, social responsibility, and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

role of reciprocity

Cialdini and Goldstein found that if you introduced the role of reciprocity by having a partner or business act prosocially first, it would influence subsequent cooperation.

cost-benefit analysis

A cognitive process where the costs and benefits of cooperation are evaluated by an individual, usually influenced by greed.

prospect theory

The theory that people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains.

loss aversion

A human tendency to emphasize losses more than gains.

competition

This especially enhanced male performance in physical tasks but inhibited cognitive performance for males and females, especially against a female competitor.

prejudice

A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

availability heuristic

Making a judgement on a person or group based on the answer or example that most easily comes to mind.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for examples that support our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Schema Theory

The theory that people comprehend experiences, mold memories, and behave to fit information that already exists in their minds.

covariation model

A theory of attribution asserting that people rely on consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of information when assigning causes for events or a behavior by an individual, such as how to explain exceptions to a stereotype.

illusory correlation

The origins of stereotypes may come from perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

grain of truth hypothesis

Argues that an experience with an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group as an explanation of the origins of stereotypes.

Integrated Threat Theory

A robust theory proposing that prejudice results from four types of threats: realistic threats, symbolic threats, threats stemming from intergroup anxiety, and threats arising from negative stereotypes.

symbolic threats

The perception that outgroup values threaten the values of one's ingroup as part of ITT.

Theory of Threatened Egotism

Intergroup prejudice and discrimination occur when our own perception of self is threatened or damaged.

diathesis stress model

This model suggests that a person may be prejudiced and discriminate due to predispositions/personality traits but that remains unexpressed until triggered by an environmental stressor.

Implicit Association Test

A test of what people unconsciously associate other people with (ex: black names = violence)

amygdala and frontal lobe

Two brain areas that appear to be activated in terms of evaluating threats that may be tied to prejudice and discrimination.

stereotype content model

A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth.

realistic conflict theory

The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination

superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation can reduce conflict.

group polarization

The phenomenon where the decisions and opinions of people in a group become more extreme than their actual, privately held beliefs. Thus your in-group can profoundly affect your prejudices and lead to discrimination.

contact hypothesis

The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases. (very similar to the mere exposure effect)