General Science Pointers and Concepts

These flashcards cover basic concepts and vocabulary from the lecture notes on General Science topics.

Science

A systematic study of facts, principles, and methods observed in natural, physical, and social environments.

Scientific Method

A logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge to explain natural phenomena.

Physics

The study of matter, energy, and the interactions between them.

Chemistry

The science dealing with the composition, properties, reactions, and structure of matter.

Geology

The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth.

Oceanography

The exploration and study of the ocean.

Meteorology

The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate.

Hypothesis

An educated guess made based on gathered information for scientific experimentation.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is changed to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured or tested as it responds to changes in the independent variable.

Density

The mass of an object per unit volume, determining whether it will float or sink in water.

Work

Done when a force applied results in the movement of an object in the direction of the force.

Energy

The ability to do work or exert a force on an object to make it move.

Weathering

The process that breaks down rocks through physical or chemical means, resulting in sediments.

Erosion

The process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried away by agents like wind and water.

Deposition

The dropping or depositing of sediments carried by erosion.

Plate Tectonics

The theory that describes the movement of the Earth's lithosphere plates and their interactions.

Volcano

A gap in the Earth where molten rock and other materials come to the surface.

Earthquake

Shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in the Earth’s crust.

Climate

The average weather in a region over a long period, typically decades.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather occurs.

Ozone Layer

A layer in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Greenhouse Effect

A process by which greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, warming the planet.

Comet

An object in space made of ice and dust that can develop a tail when close to the sun.

Asteroid

A small rocky body orbiting the sun, mostly found between Mars and Jupiter.

Galaxy

An immense system containing billions of stars, such as the Milky Way.

Nebula

A giant glowing cloud of dust and gas in space, often forming new stars.

Kinematics

The branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects without reference to the forces acting on them.

Newton's First Law

An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.

Newton's Second Law

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass, expressed as $F = ma$.

Newton's Third Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Friction

The resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another.

Momentum

The quantity of motion an object has, calculated as the product of its mass and velocity: $p = mv$.

Work-Energy Principle

The work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.

Simple Harmonic Motion

A type of periodic motion in which an object moves back and forth around an equilibrium position, such as a pendulum.

Wave

A disturbance that travels through a medium, transferring energy from one point to another, characterized by wavelength, frequency, and speed.

Frequency

The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time, commonly measured in Hertz (Hz).

Amplitude

The maximum displacement of points on a wave from its rest position; a measure of the wave's energy.

Refraction

The bending of light or other waves as they pass from one medium to another due to change in speed.

Reflection

The bouncing back of light or sound when it hits a surface that does not absorb its energy.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of all electromagnetic radiation frequencies, from radio waves to gamma rays.

Thermal Energy

The total energy of all the particles in a substance, related to temperature and heat.

Convection

The transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) caused by molecular motion.

Conduction

The transfer of heat through a solid material without any movement of the material itself.

Radiation

The transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves, such as light.

Hydrocarbon

An organic compound made entirely of hydrogen and carbon, commonly found in fossil fuels.

Alkane

A saturated hydrocarbon with single bonds only; general formula $C_nH_{2n+2}$.

Alkene

An unsaturated hydrocarbon with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds; general formula $C_nH_{2n}$.

Alkyne

An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds; general formula $C_nH_{2n-2}$.

Functional Group

A specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for characteristic chemical reactions of that molecule.

Biochemical Pathway

A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell, leading to the transformation of one substance into another.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst that accelerates chemical reactions in the body by lowering the activation energy.

Homeostasis

The ability of a living organism to maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in external environment.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual organism, representing its hereditary information.

Phenotype

The set of observable characteristics of an organism resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence of a gene, which may lead to changes in phenotype.

Natural Selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring, driving evolution.

Speciation

The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

Fossil Record

The total number of fossils discovered and the information they provide about the history of life on Earth.

Plate Boundary

The edges where two tectonic plates meet, often associated with geological activity such as earthquakes and volcanoes.

Seismic Wave

Energy waves that travel through the Earth and are generated by geological processes, such as earthquakes.