BIO1030 Final Exam/Exam 3 Study Guides MAMMONE OU

1. What is the smallest infectious agent because it is made up of only a protein?

prions

2. What is the largest infectious agent?

Multicellular parasites

3. Which infectious agent is larger: viruses, bacteria or fungi?

fungi

4. Review differences between animal eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Which has a nucleus? Membrane-bound organelles? One circular chromosome rather than many linear chromosomes?

Nucleus: eukaryotes

Membrane-bound organelles: eukaryotes

One circular chromosome: prokaryotes

Linear chromosomes: eukaryotes

5. What do animals cells lack on the outside of their cells that prokaryotic cells have and thus they make a good target for antibiotics?

A cell wall

6. What type of cells (eukaryotic or prokaryotic) does each of the following have: bacteria, fungi, protozoa and multicellular parasites?

Bacteria: prokaryotic

Fungi: eukaryotic

Protozoa: eukaryotic

Multicellular parasites: eukaryotic

7. Are viruses living? What do we call them if we don't call them cells? (the more we know about them the more they are in a gray area of living and non-living)

No, viruses are non-living, If we dont call them cells, we call them particles

8. What two things are all viruses made up of? What is the third component that only some viruses have on the outside? (fyi: many animal viruses have this 3rd component)

2 things: protein coats that house nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) Third component: envelopes

9. Do viruses spend most of their time outside or inside of cells? (are they intracellular or extracellular)

Inside (intracellular)

10. Explain what a prion is and why these infectious agents are so hard to treat.

Prions are infectious proteins. They are resistant to boiling, cooking, UV lights, freezing, drying, etc.

11. Name 3 functions of the lymphatic system.

1. Maintains blood volume

2. Transports fats in digestion

3. Defends our body against infections

12. What are the characteristics of the 1st and 2nd lines of defense? Contrast this to the 3rd line.

Physical barriers, Chemical barriers, Genetic barriers

13. Are the first and second lines of defense fast in their response? Are they specific or nonspecific in recognition?

Fast in response

Nonspecific in recognition

14. Name some physical barriers of defense in the first line? Explain the microbiome.

Skin, earwax, mucus, eyelashes

Microbiomes can be a barrier because if they are all over your skin, bacteria has no where to stay and reproduce on skin

15. Name some chemical barriers in the first line of defense. What is lysozyme?

Lysozyme, stomach acid,

They break down bacteria

16. Explain 2 genetic barriers of defense. Are they a first, second or third line of defense?

Malaria: sickle cell disease/anemia

HIV: lack of a membrane protein

First line of defense

17. Name two phagocytes (phagocytic cells) in the second line of defense. What is phagocytosis?

Macrophages, Neutrophils

Phagocytosis is the process of removing cell debris

18. What two cells are important in producing histamine in the inflammatory response?

Mast cells

basophil

19. What two things happen as a result of histamine release (we discussed this in chapter 7 as well)?

Swelling-inflammation of capillaries-dying of neutrophils

20. What are complement proteins? What infectious agent do they work best against?

Plasma proteins found in the blood, destroys bacteria

Work best against bacteria

21. What is a MAC?

Membrane attack complex

22. Explain what interferons are. What infectious agent do they work best against?

Proteins that work against viruses helps keep healthy cells not get infected

Works best against viruses

23. What type of white blood cell is a natural killer cell? How do they function?

Lymphocyte

Recognizes cells that don't look right on the surface

24. How can a fever be advantageous in getting rid of infectious agents?

Can increase metabolism

Kills some infectious agents

Describe generally the way B and T cells work. Are they specific or nonspecific? What does it mean to be specific in recognition?

Specific recognition: only recognizes one species of bacteria

Lag period before it kicks into action

Specific recognition (receptors)

Has memory

Includes B and T cells

In what form does a T cell recognize an antigen compared to a B cell?

T cells can only recognize something that is processed chopped-up antigens. They can only see a piece of a virus or bacterium etc... displayed on the outside of another cell

After an immune response with B and T cells, what type of cells are left behind for each of these cells types that are the basis for the secondary immune response and thus our long term immunity to that same infectious agent?

Active complement (2nd line of defense)

Attract phagocytes (2nd line of defense)

Causes clumping

Neutralizes the antigen

The antibodies act as tags for destruction as well as other functions

What specific B cells make antibodies?

lymphocytes

. Describe the primary and secondary immune responses. Which is faster? Longer lasting? A stronger response?

Primary: lagtime/delay, less strong, short-lived response

Secondary: quick response, strong and long-lived response

Give two examples of passive immunity. Give two examples that would result in active immunity. Which is a vaccine considered?

Ex. passing antibodies from mom to child through the placenta or breast milk or an injection of antibodies = passive immunity

Vaccine is considered an active immunity

Vaccine is an example of active immunity

What is in a vaccine?

Contains a small piece or a dead or weakened form of the virus or bacteria that causes a diseases

Preservatives

Stabilizers

adjuvants

What is the purpose of a vaccine?

To help your immune system recognize and fight off a specific virus or bacteria if you're exposed to it in the future

Do vaccines decrease the incidence of disease?

Yes, vaccines are one of the most effective ways to decrease the incidence of disease

What is herd immunity and how does it help unvaccinated individuals?

Heard immunity is when a large portion of a community is immune to a disease. Either through vaccination or previous infection. This makes it less likely for the disease to spread, which can protect unvaccinated individuals

Why might someone choose to not be vaccinated or not vaccinate their child?

Safety

Effectiveness

Religious objections

Philosophical objections

What is an autoimmune disease?

A disease in which the body's immune system attacks healthy cells.

What infectious agent are antibiotics meant to be used for?

Only bacteria

Explain some things that humans do that contribute to the rise in antibiotic resistance. What can you or we do to stop this increase?

We select these bacteria that are resistant and let them multiply like crazy because of our behaviors

We have to stop sharing drugs, improperly taking drugs, finishing prescriptions, skipping doses, using antibiotics in our food

Why is it a poor practice to feed antibiotics to our food animals such as chickens and cows?

They get highly resistant strains of bacteria then we eat them

What are some functions of the respiratory system? Trace the pathway of air through this system.

Functions: respiration, filtration, produces sound, and sense of smell

Pathway of air: nose-pharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-bronchioles-alveoli

Where specifically are gases exchanged in the respiratory system in the lungs? What are these structures covered in that allows the exchange into the rest of the body?

In the lungs, gases are exchanged in the alveoli. Alveoli are covered in capillaries, which is what allows for gas exchange

What do alveoli and capillaries structurally have in common? (what are they made of and how thick are the cell layers)

Alveoli are both microscopic and are made up of a single layer of epithelial tissue

What molecule is found in red blood cells that carries most of the oxygen around the body?

hemoglobin

What does oxygen bind to on hemoglobin molecules? Be specific.

The four iron molecules on hemoglobin

What are the conditions in the lungs (3) that allow efficient oxygen binding? What are the conditions in the body tissues that allows for oxygen to be released where it is needed in active tissues. Explain why active body cells/tissues would have a lower pH.

Conditions needed for oxygen binding: high oxygen levels, high pH levels, and a cooler temperature

Conditions needed in body tissues for oxygen release: high oxygen, higher pH, and a slightly higher temperature

Active body cells/tissues cause oxygen and CO2 to decrease, this causes more acid and brings pH levels down, which causes the temperature to rise

Where is most carbon dioxide (in a changed form) carried in the blood back to the lungs to be exhaled?

plasma/bicarbonate ion

. What is emphysema and what can cause it?

Emphysema is a disease of alveoli where alveoli's walls are cut down

Emphysema can be caused by smoking

How many major types of influenza viruses are there?

There are 3 major types: type A is in humans, birds and pigs. Types B and C are in humans only

We need yearly vaccinations for influenza. Explain why using the concept of antigenic drift.

We need a new vaccine each year because the protein spikes have changed on the virus, so it has mutated since the last time the virus was seen

What is antigenic shift as it relates to the influenza virus and why it is worrisome to humans?

Antigenic shifts make the influenza virus basically a completely new virus due to shifts in protein spikes. The new flu virus is created as a result of mixing and matching type A proteins, which leads to a higher mortality rate

What type of infectious agent results in the flu? The cold?

Both the flu and a cold is the result of a virus

Why is it hard to make a vaccination against the common cold?

The common cold is made up of one 200 viruses. 200 viruses cannot be put into a vaccine, and even if it could the body couldn't handle it if injected with it

Do tobacco products result in just a couple of types of cancers, one type or many types?

Tobacco product use can result in many types of cancer

What percent of people with lung cancer are current or former smokers?

85-90% of people with lung cancer are current or former smokers

On average how many years of life do smokers lose compared to nonsmokers?

14 years

What is secondhand smoke? Thirdhand smoke? Are either thought to be harmful?

Secondhand smoke is when you breathe in smoke from an environmental source

Thirdhand smoke is leftover particles found in carpets, rental cars, etc

Both are considered to be harmful

What organ is needed most often for donation?

kidney

Be able to recognize the parts of the urinary system. Where is urine made? Where is it stored? Through what tube does urine leave the body? Through what tube is it transferred from the kidney to the bladder?

Parts of the urinary system (recognize): 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 bladder, 1 urethra

Urine is produced in the kidney

Urine is stored in the bladder

The ureters move the urine from the kidneys to the bladder

What is a UTI? Do males or females get them more often and why?

UTI is a urinary tract infection that is most often caused because normal flora gets into the urethra. Usually ecoli

It is more common in women because they have a shorter urethra

Why is sexual reproduction important for the long term survival of many species?

It increases the genetic makeup of individuals and this is very important for the long-term survival of a species

Name the functions of the following: testes, epididymis, vas deferens and the urethra in reproduction.

Testes: testosterone and sperm are made. Dont make sperm until puberty

Epididymis: stores sperm. Goes here to mature

Vas deferens: the vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm outside of the body, in preparation for ejaculation

Urethra: used to ejaculate semen

Name the structures of the female reproductive system.

2 ovaries, 2 fallopian tubes, 1 uterus, 1 cervix, 1 vagina

Where does fertilization take place? Implantation?

Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes

Implantation takes place in the uterus

What is ovulation?

Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovary

Name the three major types of birth control methods. Which one(s) aid in preventing sexually transmitted infections/diseases?

Abstinence, barrier, and hormonal

Abstinence and barrier are protective against sexually transmitted infections

What causes chlamydia and gonorrhea? What are the symptoms? Can they be treated with antibiotics? Do they always cause symptoms? What can be a long term consequence of either of these infections?

Bacterial infections cause chlamydia and gonorrhea

Symptoms: burning during urination, discharge, but often no symptoms

Yes, can be treated with antibiotics

Longterm consequences can include: pelvic inflammatory disease

What is pelvic inflammatory disease? What can cause it? What is an ectopic pregnancy?

Pelvic inflammatory disease: infertile, scar tissue can close off the fallopian tube, inflammation of the fallopian tube

Ectopic pregnancy: baby growing in the fallopian tube

. What is the general difference between Type I and Type II herpes (think the location of the body)? What are the symptoms? Is this disease curable? Treatable? Can HSV be transferred to another person even when they aren't showing symptoms? Can you protect yourself from this 100% if you are having sexual contact with another person (not necessarily intercourse)?

Difference between type 1 and type 2: type 1 occurs above the waist and type 2 occurs below the waist

Symptoms include painful blisters

NOT curable but it is treatable

Yes, it can be transferred person to person

Transmitted through any skin contact

What is HPV? Does it usually have symptoms? How is it usually detected in women? How common was it in the study done in college-aged women over 5 years? Why is this infection worrisome for women?

HPV: genital warts.

Viral and very common, less than 1% actually show warts

Pap smear can test for women but there is no test for men

Can lead to cervical cancer in women

Near 60% of college women will get it in their college years

What is the vaccine for? What does it consist of and why? Can you still get cervical cancer if you have had the vaccine for HPV?

The vaccine is to lower the risk of contracting HPV

It contains the two most common strands (16&18)

Yes, you are not immune to HPV

What cells does HIV infect and what is AIDS compared to HIV?

Infects helper t-cells

Such low counts of T-cells mean you have AIDS

Follow the order of structures as food passes through the body starting with the mouth.

Mouth

Esophagus

Stomach

Small intestine

Large intestine

anus

What is peristalsis?

Smooth muscle contraction in the digestive tract, moves food down the digestive tract

Where does the digestion of carbohydrates begin? Proteins? Lipids?

Carbohydrates: mouth

Proteins: stomach

Lipids: small intestine

What are 3 functions of the stomach?

storage, digestion, defense

Does the esophagus aid in digestion? Where does most digestion and absorption occur? What structures increase the surface area of this part of the digestive system?

Yes it does aid in digestion

Most digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine

The villi and microvilli increase the surface area of this part of the digestion system

What is the function of the accessory organs in digestion: pancreas (2), gall bladder and liver?

Pancreas: neutralizes the acidic contents coming from stomach to intestines, makes and secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine to break down proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, and regulates blood sugar levels

Liver: makes bile for lipid digestion

Gallbladder: stores bile and secretes it into small intestine for lipid/fat digestion

What other function does the pancreas have that is not related to digestion?

Highly involved with blood sugar regulation

Produces insulin

How does the absorption of lipids and protein differ?

The absorption of lipids takes much longer than proteins

Fats: get broken down, then covered in bile (emulsion), to keep them separate, then they are moved into a lymph vessel, then get dumped into the blood

How is bile used in lipid digestion? What is emulsification and how does it help in lipid digestion?

Bile aids the digestive process by making it easier for enzymes to digest the fat

Emulsification is the process of increasing the surface area of fats in the small intestine by grouping them into small clusters, the bile is responsible for it

What happens in the large intestine?

Water digestion/absorption

Make solid waste

What is the most common cause of ulcers in the stomach and small intestine? Can antibiotics be used to treat most ulcers?

H. Pylori Bacteria

Yes antibiotics can be used

Where is the largest amount of bacteria in the digestive tract and why is this important (does the microbiome have far-reaching effects in the body)? Name a few.

The large intestine is important for helping treat conditions like mental health, autism, obesity, multiple sclerosis, cancer, and more

What does S.A.D. stand for related to diet?

Standard American Diet

Describe what the diet of S.A.D. is made up of.

High in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and saturated fats

Low in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein sources

In what types of food is fiber found in and why is it important for your health to have fiber in the foods you eat?

Fiber is found in plant-based foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes.

Its important for your health because it helps regulate digestion and can prevent constipation. It also helps lower cholesterol levels and can reduce the risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer

What is the protein consumption like in the US compared to the rest of the world? (you don't need exact numbers)

Protein consumption in the US is generally higher than in other parts of the world. This is because the typical American diet includes more animal products, which are a good source of protein. In other parts of the world, plant-based proteins like beans, lentils, and soy products are more commonly consumed

Bacon, salami, sausage and others are processed meats. What disease is linked to eating these?

Eating processed meats has been linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer

What is the problem with eating processed foods rather than whole foods?

Processed foods are often high in added sugars, unhealthy fats, and sodium. They're also low in nutrients like fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Eating too many processed foods can lead to weight gain, high blood pressure, heart disease, and other health problems. Whole foods, on the other hand, are generally more nutrient-dense and can help keep you healthy.

How many in five deaths is attributed to a poor diet?

1 in 5 deaths globally

What do I mean when I say eat a rainbow?

It means consuming a variety of colorful fruits and vegetables. Eating a variety of colors ensures that you're getting a range of nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants

. What is a plant-based diet like...name some of the foods included in this diet.

A plant-based diet is centered around foods derived from plants, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and legumes. It typically excludes or minimizes animal products like meat, dairy, and eggs.

Some examples of foods that are included in a plant-based diet are leafy greens, berries, quinoa, lentils, nuts, tofu, and avocado

What is the general difference between whole grain and white/processed grain?

Whole grains contain all parts of the grain, including the bran, germ, and endosperm. This makes them higher in fiber, vitamins, and minerals than processed grains, which have had the bran and germ removed.

Processed grains are often enriched with some of the lost nutrients, but they're still lower in fiber and other nutrients than whole grains. Choosing whole grains over processed grains can help you get more nutrients and fiber in your diet

Why are beans such as black, pinto and such a good choice to replace meat or help to limit meat in your diet?

Beans like black beans and pinto beans are a good choice to replace meat or limit meat in your diet because they're a great source of plant-based protein. They're also high in fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and low in fat.

Eating more plant-based protein can help reduce your risk of heart disease, certain cancers, and other health problems

Plus, beans are versatile and can be used in a variety of dishes like soups, salads, and tacos

Are there other non-meat items besides bean that contain protein? If so, what are some of them?

Yes, there are many non-meat items that contain protein.

Some examples include tofu, tempeh, seitan, quinoa, lentils, chickpeas, nuts, seeds, and nut butters

What was the food is medicine clip about that you listened to? (this is at the end of the diabetes lecture)

It's a concept that refers to the idea that the foods we eat can have a powerful impact on our health. This clip may explore the ways that certain foods can help prevent or treat certain health conditions, and how incorporating more whole, plant-based foods into our diets can have a positive impact on our overall health and wellness

Why should you shop the perimeter in a grocery store?

It can be a good strategy for finding healthier food options. This is because the perimeter is typically where you'll find fresh produce, meats, dairy, and other whole, minimally processed foods. These foods are generally healthier than the packaged, processed foods that are found in the center isles of the store. By focusing on the perimeter, you can help ensure you're getting more nutrient-dense foods in your diet.

What are silent foods?