theory and methods

Quantitative and qualitative data

Quantitative Data: Numerical data that can be measured and statistically analyzed and can be easily generalized to form a law of behavior. Used By: Positivists who aim to find patterns and test hypotheses.

Qualitative Data: Descriptive and verbal in-depth data that explores meanings and experiences. Examples: Used By: Interpretivists who focus on understanding social action.

Primary and secondary data

Primary data

Definition data collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific purpose

Example: interviews, questionnaires and experiments

Pros: Tailored to the research questions up to date

Cons: time consuming and costly

Secondary data:

Definition: Data previously collected by someone else

Example: government statistics, media articles and pervious research

Pros: quick, cheap often large scale

Cons: May be outdated, not exactly relevant to current research.

Consensus theory

Society is based on shared norms and values which maintains social order

They view society as stable, harmonious and help together by agreement

Example:

• Functionalism

• The new right

Research methods they preferred:

Quantitate method such as social survey, strutted interviews and official statistics

Chosen for their reliability, generalisability, and objectivity (positivist approach)

Conflict theories

Society is made up of groups in conflict, often due to inequality and power struggles

See the society unstable, marked by tension, oppressed and domination

Examples

• Marxism (class conflict)

• Feminist (gender inequality)

Research methods they preferred

• mix of quantative and qualitative data

• Field experiments, official statistics but also unstructured interviews and documents

• Often chosen to expose inequality or highlights exploitation

Social action theories - Max Webber

Focuses on the individual actions, meaning and interaction in shaping society

They view society as constructed from the bottom up through everyday behaviour

Examples:

• symbolic interactionism

• Weberian sociology

Research methods preferred

• qualitative data like instructed interviews, ppt observations and personal documents

• Emphasise validity, verstehen (true meaning) and exploring lived experiences

Research method design: Hypothetico- deduction model

When producing research, sociologists must think about 5 key things:

1. Reliability - whether the research can be completed again in the future and yield similar results

2. Representativeness - the extent to which the sample used in the research represents the overall population
   Generalisability - the extent to which the findings can be applied to the target population

3. Validity -whether the research provides a true picture for what is being studied

4. Objectivity - research is objective when all personal and emotional bias has been completely removed from it, including how the questions may be asked in an interview and how findings are interpreted

Research methods

Social Surveys

Explanation: Structured questionnaires, designed to collect info from large samples

Strengths:

• Easy to generalise

• High reliability

Weaknesses:

• Provides no meaning behind behaviour

• Participants may not understand a question

Structured Interview

Explanation: Social surveys read out face-to-face or over the phone

Strengths:

• High reliability

Weaknesses:

• Provides no meaning behind behaviour

Unstructured Interview

Explanation: Guided conversation with open questions, flexed by answers given

Strengths:

• High validity

Weaknesses:

• Low reliability

Participant Observation

Explanation: Researcher joins group to study them

Strengths:

• High validity

• Covert = more truthful results

Weaknesses:

• Covert = ethical issues with informed consent

• Overt = Hawthorne effect (change their behaviour as they know they are being watched)

Non-Participant Observation

Explanation: Researcher observes group from a distance

Strengths:

• High reliability (usually more structured)

Weaknesses:

• Ethical issues surrounding informed consent

Experiments

Explanation: Measure impact of one variable on another to establish cause and effect

Strengths:

• Lab = high validity

• Field = more natural behaviour

Weaknesses:

• Low reliability

• Field = ethical issues

Personal Documents

Explanation: Secondary data from diaries, letters, blogs

Strengths:

• In-depth meaning behind behaviour

Weaknesses:

• Hard to generalise to wider population

• Soft stats = subjective

Official Statistics

Explanation: Secondary data collected by government

Strengths:

• Hard stats = objective

• Reliable

Weaknesses:

• May not directly relate to research questions |

Positivism

Positivism

• Assumes society has objective social facts

• Society exerts influence on its members

• Uses quantitative data (numbers and statistics)

• Research is objective and value-free

• Takes a macro approach - looks at large-scale social structures

• Researchers should remain detached from subjects

• Focuses on reliability - consistency and replicability

• Favorable methods: questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments

Interpretivism

• Believes reality is constructed by individuals

• Our actions come from personal meanings, not just external forces

• Uses qualitative data (words, meanings, experiences
  Research is subjective and shaped by the

researcher's understanding

Takes a micro approach - focuses on

individuals or small groups

Researchers should build rapport and

empathy

Focuses on validity - getting an in-depth,

truthful understanding

• Favorable methods: unstructured interviews, ethnography, participant observation

Research method linked with education

Social Surveys (e.g. questionnaires) Used for: Measuring student attainment, teacher expectations, bullying, parental attitudes.

Strengths: Quick, cheap, good for large samples; useful for comparing across schools.

Weaknesses: Lacks depth, students may not understand questions, low validity.

Interviews (Structured & Unstructured) Used for: Understanding teacher-student interactions, labelling, career aspirations.

Structured: Reliable and easy to repeat. But may feel formal/intimidating in school context.

Unstructured: Builds rapport (trust) ; good for sensitive topics like racism or pressure. But time-consuming and harder to analyse.

Observations (Participant & Non-participant) Used for: Studying classroom behaviour, pupil subcultures, teacher labelling.

Strengths: High validity - captures natural behaviour.

Weaknesses: Hawthorne effect, ethical issues (especially with covert observation), difficult access.

Official Statistics used for: Exam performance, truancy rates, exclusions, free school meal eligibility.

Strengths: Readily available, allows for trends and comparisons.

Weaknesses: May lack context or detail; definitions can vary between schools.

Documents (e.g. school reports, policy documents) Used for: Analysing school policies, league tables, historical education trends.

Strengths: In-depth insight into institutional practices.

Weaknesses: Access can be limited; authenticity and credibility can be hard to judge.

Problems when conducting research

Theoretical issues

Validity: dies the method produce a true, in-depth picture of social reality

Reliability: Can the research be repeated and produce the same results

Representativeness: Is the sample typical of the wider population

Methodological perspective:

• positivist preference quantitative, reliable, large-scale data

• interpretivists prefer qualitative, valid, in depth data.

Ethical issues

Informed consent: Ppt must agree to take part with full knowledge

Confidentiality: Data must kept private and anonymous

Protected from harm: Ppt should not be harmed

Deception: Misleading ppt is generally discouraged unless justified

Right to with draw: Ppt must be able to leave the study at any point

Practical issues

Time and cost: Some methods are more expensive or time consuming than other.

Access: Gaining access to certain groups (e.g. gangs, elite professionals may be difficult

Skills of the researcher: Interviews and observations require strong interpersonal skills

Funding: The research method may depend on who’s funding the study.

Subject matter: Sensitive topics may limit what can be studied or how.

Modernity v Postmodernity

Modern Society (1650-1950)

Focus on production and industrial labour

Dominated by heavy capitalism

Nuclear family seen as the norm

Identities based on class and gender

Media reflects reality

Strong institutions (e.g., family, state, religion) hold power

Belief in science, progress, and truth Grand narratives explain society (e.g.,

Marxism, Functionalism)

Education socialises and prepares for work

Postmodern Society (1950-Present)

Focus on service sector and consumerism

Characterised by disorganised capitalism (flexible, globalised)

Greater diversity in family structures

Fluid identities, shaped by choice and culture Media creates hyperreality (Baudrillard)

Decline of traditional institutions and authority

Skepticism of grand narratives (Lyotard)

Knowledge is judged by usefulness, not truth

Education is marketised, shaped by consumer choice

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE

Objectivity

• Based on observable, measurable facts.

• Free from personal bias or emotions.

• Aims for neutrality and consistency.

• Common in positivist research.

• Example: Using statistical data to measure crime rates.

Subjectivity

• Based on personal feelings, opinions, or experiences.

• Influenced by individual perspectives.

• Emphasizes understanding meanings and context.

• Common in interpretivist research.

• Example: Exploring personal experiences of crime through interviews.