Bio Psych Exam 3

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex is a set of characteristics that separate organisms into male and female

Gender is the set of behavioral characteristics that correspond to sex

Define gender role and give an example.

Gender role is the societal expectations for a given sex. For example, women are expected to give birth to a child.

What is gender identity, and how does it differ from biological sex?

Gender identity is the subjective feeling of belonging to a particular sex. It’s different from biological sex because one is a feeling while the other is the sex a person is born to.

Which parent determines the biological sex of a baby, and why?

The father determines the sex because it has a Y chromosome, which is the only chromosome to determine a child is male

What are the typical chromosomal patterns for males and females?

Women: XX Man: XY

What are gonads, and what are their functions in males vs females?

Gonads are the primary reproductive organ.

In females, the ovaries are where eggs develop. In males, the testes produce sperms

What is the role of the SRY gene in development?

It creates the Mullerian inhibiting hormone, which defeminizes the fetus and causes the Mullerian ducts to degenerate

What are Müllerian ducts, and what do they develop into?

Fetal structures (female) that develop into the uterus, the fallopian tubes, and the inner vagina

What are Wolffian ducts, and what do they develop into?

Fetal structures (male) that develop into the seminal vesicles, which store semen, and the vas deferens, which carry semen from the testes to the penis

What hormone causes Müllerian ducts to degenerate?

Mullerian inhibiting hormone

What is the role of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in development?

It masculinizes the external genitals

What is the “default” pathway for external genital development?

Female external genitalia

What is the difference between organizational effects and activational effects of hormones?

Organizational effects permanently shape structures while activational effects temporarily alter structures, and can be reversible by removing the hormone

When do organizational effects typically occur, and why are they important?

They occur during sensitive periods of development. They’re important because they permanently shape structures in the body

How does testosterone influence behavior and brain development?

Increasing testosterone levels “sexualizes” the brain and body. This develops the physical traits associated with male-typical sexual behaviors, motivation, and physical appearance

What role does estradiol play in masculinization or feminization of the brain?

It masculinizes/defeminizes the brain. It influences brain energy, metabolism, and neuroplasticity. It activates male sexual behavior (sex drive) while repressing female sexual behaviors (emotional connections)

What are some examples of male-typical vs female-typical behaviors influenced by hormones?

Male: Aggression, competitiveness, and libido
Female: Maternal instincts, social connections, mood fluctuations

Why are sex differences in behavior considered not absolute?

Social and environmental factors can influence a person’s behavior, so it’s not always absolute that a man will have all male-typical behaviors and a woman have all female-typical behaviors

What does it mean to be transgender?

An identity crisis where the person doesn’t feel connected to their birth sex compared to another sex

What is gender dysphoria?

A distress that a person’s assigned gender doesn’t match their gender identity

What are the INAH3 and BNST, and how do they differ between males and females?

INAH3: 3rd Interstitial Nucleus of the Anterior Hypothalamus
BNST: Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminals
Both are larger in men than in women

How do these brain structures typically compare in transgender individuals?

INAH3 is smaller in gay men than in straight men.

What does intersex mean?

A condition where a person has ambiguous genitalia or a discrepancy between their sex chromosomes and their genitalia

What evidence suggests that sexual orientation is influenced by biology rather than environment?

The Suprachiasmic Nucleus (SCN) is larger in gay men and secretes more vasopressin. The INAH3 is also smaller in gay men than straight men

How do genetic, prenatal, and brain structure differences contribute to sexual orientation?

Heritability of sexual orientation is 32-40%.

The Prenatal Androgen Theory states that prenatal hormone exposure (testosterone) programs sexual orientation
There’s studies saying that if one twin is gay, there’s a high chance the other twin is also gay

Things like INAH3 also reflect possible signs of homosexuality

What is emotion, and what are its three main components?

Increase/decrease of activity through feelings. Components are emotion, behavior, and expressions

What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system in emotion?

“Fight or flight”, stimulates adrenaline to release hormones (cortisol)

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Reduces activity and conserves/restores energy

Explain the James-Lange theory of emotion.

Emotion occurs as a result of physiological reactions to events, and not being the causation

Explain the Schachter-Singer (two-factor) theory of emotion.

Emotional experiences come from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive labelling

What does the integrative embodiment theory suggest about emotion?

Cognition, emotion, and self awareness are not products of the brain, but are shaped from the entire body and environment

What are mirror neurons, and how do they relate to empathy?

A neuron that responds to both performing a behavior and watching the behavior in others. Watching specific activities activation our own emotional areas (empathy)

What is the limbic system, and what is its general function?

Collection of brain structures within cerebral cortex. Regulates emotion, motivation, and memory

What is the role of the amygdala in emotion?

Associates with fear

What is the difference between fear and anxiety?

Fear is a reaction to an immediate event. Anxiety is apprehension about future events

What happens when a person has bilateral amygdala damage?

They can’t produce fear responses from external threats

What is the function of the prefrontal cortex in emotion?

Last place where emotional information goes before taking action

What happens when the prefrontal cortex is damaged?

Causes increased impulsivity and reduced empathy, irritability, and personality changes

What is skin conductance response (SCR), and what does it measure?

Uses information from amygdala, nucleus accumbens and posterior parietal cortex to measures sympathetic nervous system activity

What roles do the anterior insular cortex (AIC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) play in emotion?

AIC: Important for emotional awareness

ACC: Contributes to conscious experience of emotion by using information from AIC to generate action

What is alexithymia, and how is it related to brain function?

The inability to identify, describe and process emotions. Linked to disruption of AIC, ACC, and amygdala

Do specific emotions map to single brain areas, or involve multiple regions?

Involve multiple regions

What is stress, and how can it be both adaptive and maladaptive?

An internal condition from environments that make unusual demands, such as threats, failure, or bereavement.

Adaptive: Brief stress activates immune system

Maladaptive: Chronic stress interferes w/ memory, appetite, sexual desire, energy levels, and immune function

What is the correct order of events in the stress response pathway (amygdala → hypothalamus → …)?

Amygdala lets hypothalamus know there’s a stressful situation → Hypothalamus tells adrenal glands to release epinephrine/norepinephrine (fight or flight) → Hypothalamus tells pituitary gland to release ACTH → adrenal cortex releases cortisol

What hormones are released during the stress response, and what do they do?

Epinephrine/norepinephrine (fight or flight response), ACTH (stimulates adrenal cortex), and cortisol (produces stress response)

How does short-term stress affect the immune system?

Helps protect people from infections/autoimmune disorders

What role does social support play in stress and health?

Lowers death rate, stress, and stress hormones

What is the difference between the sensory and affective components of pain?

Sensory: What pain feels like

Affective: How much the pain bothers you

How does the brain process pain, and which brain areas are involved in its emotional aspect?

Pain is translated into emotion. Limbic system, somatosensory area, ACC, and prefrontal areas

What is aggression, and how do predatory, affective, proactive, and reactive aggression differ?

Behavior intended to harm

Predatory: When animal attacks/kills prey

Affective: Emotional arousal

Proactive: Unprovoked and emotionless, intended to bring some gain for aggressor

Reactive: Occurs in response to a threat

How do testosterone, serotonin, and cortisol influence aggression?

Testosterone: Weak influence to aggression

Serotonin: Inhibits/suppresses aggression

Cortisol: Inhibits aggression

What brain structure is the primary initiator of aggression?

Hypothalamus

How does the amygdala influence aggression?

Primary threat detection system

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in controlling aggression?

Suppresses aggression

What happened to patient H.M., and what did his case reveal about memory?

Patient H/M had his hippocampus removed, which resulted in epilepsy and memory loss.

What is anterograde amnesia, and what causes it?

The inability to form new memories after an injury. It’s caused by the damage to area CA1 in the hippocampus

What is retrograde amnesia, and how does it differ from anterograde amnesia?

The inability to access memories that preceded injury. This is different from anterograde amnesia because the person isn’t able to recollect previous memories rather than make new ones

What role does the hippocampus play in memory

Required for formation of new declarative memories

How can diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s affect memory?

They cause amnesia

What is consolidation, and why is it important?

The process where the brain forms a physical representation of a memory. It helps with long term retention and prevents any existing memories from being forgotten

• What is retrieval?

• What is the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory?

• What happens when the hippocampus is damaged during learning tasks?

10. Where are memories stored in the brain?

10. What are place cells, and what do they do?

10. What is declarative memory? Give examples.

10. What is nondeclarative (procedural) memory? Give examples.

10. What brain structures are involved in:

• Declarative memory?

• Procedural memory?

• What is working memory, and how is it similar to a computer?

• What role does the prefrontal cortex play in working memory?

• What is the Hebb rule?

• What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

• What is long-term depression (LTD)?

• What neurotransmitter is most involved in LTP?

How does sleep contribute to memory consolidation?

• What is reconsolidation, and why does it make memories vulnerable?

• hat is extinction, and how does it occur?

• How does aging affect memory and brain function?

• What are the key features of Alzheimer’s disease, including plaques and tangles?