U.S. Elections and Media Practice Flashcards

This set of flashcards covers key vocabulary from the lecture notes on political conventions, the Electoral College, campaign finance laws, media coverage styles, and voting behavior.

Political party conventions

formal national gatherings held by major parties (like Democrats and Republicans) to officially nominate their presidential and vice-presidential candidates. Delegates—chosen through primaries and caucuses—vote to confirm the nominee. Conventions also serve to unify the party, adopt a party platform (policy goals), and launch the general election campaign with speeches and media coverage.

Delegates

A contested convention occurs when no candidate has secured a majority of delegates before the convention, requiring multiple rounds of voting. Delegates may change their votes after the first round. A brokered convention is a type of contested convention where party leaders and delegates negotiate (or “broker”) deals behind the scenes to determine the nominee. These were more common before modern primary systems.

Contested convention

The Electoral College is the system used to elect the president, established in Article II of the Constitution and modified by the 12th Amendment. Each state is allocated electors equal to its number of senators (2) plus representatives in the House. Voters technically vote for electors pledged to a candidate. Most states use a winner-take-all system. A candidate must receive a majority of electoral votes (currently 270 out of 538) to win. If no candidate reaches a majority, the House of Representatives chooses the president.

Brokered/contested convention

A contested convention is a political party convention where no candidate wins a majority of delegates before the convention begins, forcing delegates to continue voting at the convention until a nominee receives enough support.

A brokered convention is a type of contested convention where party leaders and delegates negotiate (or “broker”) deals behind the scenes to determine the nominee. These were more common before modern primary systems.

Electoral College

The Electoral College is the system used to elect the president, established in Article II of the Constitution and modified by the 12th Amendment. Each state is allocated electors equal to its number of senators (2) plus representatives in the House. Voters technically vote for electors pledged to a candidate. Most states use a winner-take-all system. A candidate must receive a majority of electoral votes (currently 270 out of 538) to win. If no candidate reaches a majority, the House of Representatives chooses the president.

Winner-take-all system

An electoral system in which the candidate or party that receives the most votes wins all of the representation or electoral votes for that area, while losing candidates receive nothing. In U.S. presidential elections, most states use a winner-take-all system where the candidate who wins the state’s popular vote receives all of that state’s Electoral College votes. This system often strengthens the two-party system and makes it harder for smaller parties to win representation.

Certification of the Electoral College

is the formal process in which Congress officially counts and confirms the electoral votes cast for president and vice president after a presidential election. During a joint session of Congress, the electoral votes sent by each state are opened, counted, and verified, and the candidate who receives a majority of electoral votes is officially declared the winner of the election. This process is a required constitutional step before the president-elect takes office.

First Amendment (Campaign Finance)

The First Amendment protects freedom of speech, including political speech. In campaign finance, this means spending money to support or oppose candidates is often considered a form of speech. Courts have ruled that restrictions on political spending can violate the First Amendment, which limits how much the government can regulate campaign finance.

Contribution limit

Contribution limits are legal restrictions on how much money individuals, groups, or organizations can donate directly to political candidates, parties, or campaigns. They are meant to reduce corruption and prevent wealthy donors from having too much influence over elections and government officials. However, independent political spending by outside groups, like Super PACs, is often not limited as long as it is not coordinated with a campaign.

Expenditure limit

Expenditure limits are legal restrictions on how much money a candidate, campaign, or political group can spend during an election. They are intended to prevent elections from being dominated by wealth and to promote fairness between candidates. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that many spending limits violate the First Amendment because spending money on politics is considered a form of free speech.

Disclosure requirement

Disclosure requirements are laws that require political candidates, campaigns, political parties, PACs, and other organizations involved in elections to publicly report information about their campaign finances. This includes who donated money, how much was donated, and how the money was spent. The purpose of disclosure requirements is to promote transparency, prevent corruption, and help voters understand which individuals, businesses, or interest groups may be influencing elections and government officials. These reports are usually filed with government agencies like the Federal Election Commission and made available to the public.

Independent expenditures

Independent expenditures are political spending by individuals or groups that are not coordinated with a candidate’s campaign. These can include ads supporting or opposing candidates. Because they are independent, they are given broader First Amendment protection.

Citizens United v. FEC

was a major Supreme Court case that ruled corporations, unions, and outside groups can spend unlimited amounts of money on independent political advertisements, as long as they do not coordinate directly with a candidate’s campaign.

The Court argued that political spending is protected under the First Amendment as a form of free speech. Thus leading to the rise of super PACS, Increased independent political spending in elections, and Allowed corporations and unions to spend more money on political ads

News media

News media refers to organizations that gather, produce, and distribute information to the public, including television, newspapers, radio, and digital platforms. In campaigns, the media plays a crucial role in informing voters, shaping public opinion, and covering candidates.

Economic Considerations for Journalists

refer to the financial pressures and business factors that influence how news organizations operate and what stories journalists cover. Media companies rely on advertising revenue, subscriptions, ratings, and audience engagement to make money, so journalists and news outlets may prioritize stories that attract viewers, clicks, or profits. These economic pressures can affect the amount of investigative reporting done, the focus on sensational stories, and even potential bias in coverage.

Interpretive coverage

Interpretive coverage goes beyond simply reporting facts by providing analysis, context, and explanations. Journalists may evaluate candidates’ strategies, motives, and the potential impact of events, helping audiences understand the bigger picture.

Horse race coverage

a style of political journalism that focuses on who is winning or losing an election rather than on candidates’ policies or qualifications. News coverage emphasizes polls, campaign strategy, fundraising, momentum, and competition between candidates—similar to how a horse race tracks who is ahead. Critics argue that this type of coverage can make elections seem more like entertainment and may distract voters from important political issues.

Free coverage

Free coverage, also called earned media, is publicity or media attention that a political candidate, campaign, party, or issue receives without paying for advertising space or airtime. It comes from news organizations choosing to cover a candidate through news reports, interviews, debates, press conferences, social media discussions, or major campaign events.

Unlike paid political advertisements, free coverage is generated because journalists, television networks, or the public consider the candidate or event newsworthy. Since it appears as regular news rather than an advertisement, voters often view it as more credible and trustworthy.

Paid coverage

Paid coverage refers to political communication or media exposure that a candidate, campaign, political party, or interest group pays for in order to promote a message to voters. This usually includes television commercials, radio ads, online advertisements, social media promotions, mailers, billboards, and sponsored content.

Because the campaign is paying for the message, it has full control over what is said, how it is presented, when it appears, and which audience it targets. Paid coverage is commonly used to promote a candidate’s policies and image, attack opponents, increase name recognition, persuade undecided voters, or encourage supporters to vote.

Agenda setting

Agenda setting is the ability of the media, political leaders, or influential groups to shape what issues the public views as important by giving certain topics more attention and coverage. Rather than telling people exactly what to think, agenda setting influences what people think about.

In politics, when news outlets repeatedly focus on issues such as immigration, the economy, crime, or healthcare, voters begin to see those issues as major national concerns. Political campaigns also try to set the agenda by emphasizing topics that benefit their candidate and directing public attention toward those issues instead of others. Agenda setting can strongly influence public opinion, political debates, and even government priorities.

Priming

Priming is the process by which the media or political campaigns influence the standards people use to evaluate politicians, candidates, or political issues. By repeatedly focusing on certain topics, the media makes those issues more important in voters’ minds when they decide who to support.

For example, if news coverage heavily emphasizes the economy, voters are more likely to judge a president or candidate based on economic performance rather than other issues like foreign policy or education. In political campaigns, candidates often try to prime voters by constantly highlighting issues where they are viewed favorably and where their opponents appear weak.

Willie Horton ad

A controversial political attack ad used during the 1988 U.S. presidential election that highlighted the case of Willie Horton, a convicted murderer who committed a violent crime while on a Massachusetts prison furlough. The ad was used to criticize Michael Dukakis’s policies on crime and portray him as soft on crime. It became a major example of negative campaigning, fear-based messaging, and raised concerns about racial bias in political advertising.

Misinformation

In elections, misinformation shows up when false or misleading claims about candidates, policies, or voting rules are shared without intent to lie, often through social media, word of mouth, or misunderstandings of news. For example, voters might accidentally share incorrect polling information or misinterpret a candidate’s policy. Even though it’s unintentional, it can still influence voter opinions, confuse the public, and affect turnout or support for candidates.

Disinformation

Disinformation appears when false or misleading information is intentionally created and spread to influence voters or damage a candidate’s reputation. In campaigns, this can include fake news stories, manipulated images or videos, misleading social media posts, or false claims about voting rules or candidates’ policies. It is often used strategically to confuse voters, suppress turnout, or shift public opinion toward or against a candidate.

Population

• Population: The entire group you want to study (e.g., all U.S. voters).

• Sample: A smaller, representative group taken from the population.
  Pollsters use samples because surveying everyone is impractical. A good sample reflects the population accurately.

 Likely Voter

A likely voter is someone pollsters predict will actually vote in an upcoming election. They are identified using factors such as past voting history, level of interest in politics, registration status, demographic traits, and whether they say they are “certain” or “very likely” to vote. Pollsters often use models or screening questions to filter out people who are less likely to show up on Election Day. This makes polls more accurate because it focuses on the group that is most representative of the actual electorate, rather than all adults or registered voters, who may not all vote.

State vs. National polls

• National measures public opinion across the entire country (often used in presidential elections)

• State-level polls focus on voters within a specific state, which is especially important in elections like the Electoral College system where states decide outcomes.

Voter Turnout (by election type)

• Presidential elections: Highest turnout (most attention and media coverage).

• Congressional (midterms): Lower turnout than presidential elections.

• State elections: Even lower turnout.

• Local elections: Usually the lowest turnout.
  The more visible and high-stakes the election, the more people tend to vote.

VAP (Voting Age Population)

• VAP: All people aged 18 and older.

VEP (Voting Eligible Population)

VEP: Only those people aged $18$ and older who are legally allowed to vote, excluding non-citizens or some felons.

Election Day Registration (EDR)

• EDR (Election Day Registration): Allows people to register and vote on the same day.

  • Effect: Increases turnout by removing registration barriers.

Early voting

• Early Voting: Lets people vote before Election Day (in person or by mail).

  • Effect: Increases convenience and can boost turnout, especially for busy voters.

 Factors That Impact Whether Someone Votes

• Education: More educated individuals are more likely to vote.

• Income: Higher income correlates with higher turnout.

• Age: Older people vote more than younger people.

• Political interest: The more interested someone is, the more likely they vote.

• Civic duty: A sense of responsibility increases turnout.

• Registration laws: Easier registration → higher turnout.

• Mobilization efforts: Campaign outreach (calls, texts, canvassing) increases turnout.

• Competitiveness of election: Close races motivate more voters.

For the People Act (H.R. 1)

A proposed federal election reform bill designed to expand voting access, reduce the influence of money in politics, strengthen ethics laws, and limit partisan gerrymandering. The bill included measures such as automatic voter registration, expanded early voting, campaign finance disclosure requirements, and independent redistricting commissions.

Save Act

The SAVE Act (“Safeguard American Voter Eligibility Act”) is a proposed federal law that would require people to show documentary proof of U.S. citizenship—such as a passport, birth certificate, or naturalization papers—when registering to vote in federal elections. The bill is intended to strengthen election security and prevent non-citizens from voting, which supporters argue protects the integrity of elections. Critics, however, argue that documented cases of non-citizen voting are rare and that the law could create barriers for eligible voters who may not have easy access to citizenship documents, potentially lowering voter registration and turnout.

Partisan Identification

is a person’s long-term psychological attachment or loyalty to a political party, such as the Democratic or Republican Party. It acts as a political identity that strongly influences how people vote, view candidates, interpret political events, and form opinions on issues. Partisan identification often develops through family, social environment, religion, education, and personal experiences, and it tends to remain stable over time even when candidates or specific issues change.

 Impacts of Partisan Identification

Partisan ID strongly shapes:

• Voting behavior (people usually vote for their party)

• Perception of candidates/issues (bias toward own party)

• Media consumption (choosing sources that align with beliefs)

• Political polarization (stronger party loyalty → more division)

Retrospective Voting (Detailed Explanation)

Retrospective voting is when voters make decisions based on how they think a candidate or party performed in the past, rather than promises about the future.

How it works:
Voters look at outcomes like the economy, job growth, inflation, public safety, or major events. If things are going well, they reward the current leaders by voting for them again. If things are going poorly, they punish them by voting against them.

Why it matters:

• It holds politicians accountable

• It simplifies decision-making (you don’t need deep policy knowledge)

• It often centers elections around performance rather than promises