BESC 204 Exam 3

Cellulose

complex carbohydrate which is the major constituent of plant cell walls (produced by the enzyme cellulase)

Lignin

the binding agent which holds plant cell walls together, primarily in wood (produced by the enzyme ligninase)

Pectin

binding agent between plant cell walls, primarily in fruit (produced by pectinase)

Cutin

the waxy material which covers the epidermal cells of plants (produced by cutinase)

White Rot

a type of wood rot that is caused by fungi that degrades lignin

-wood degrades to dust

Brown Rot

a type of wood rot that is caused by fungi that degrades cellulose

-also known as dry rot

-wood becomes dried and cracked

Nutritional Succession

the ability of some species to utilize certain compounds for metabolism, occupying that nutritional niche

r-Selected Species

-grow rapidly

-short phase of growth

-utilizes simple nutrients

-produce many offspring with low rates of reproductive success/survival

K-Selected Species

-grow slowly

-long life span

-produce few offspring with high rates of reproductive success/survival

Decomposition Sequence of Fungi

1. resident microbes on tissue

2. pioneer saprotrophic fungi

3. polymer degrading fungi

4. degraders of more recalcitrant resources

Dispersal

wind, water, vector, self-propelled

Wind Dispersal

spore dispersal by wind, on exposed hyphae, on/in fruit bodies

-ex. shaggy mane, puffballs, earthstars, basidiomycetes

Buller's Drop

way of spore dispersal by basidiomycetes

-water coats the spore

-water droplet forms at base of spore and conidium

-water droplet grows until it contacts the spore

-water droplet redistributes the center of gravity and catapults spore into wind

Water Dispersal

spore dispersal by water, oozes out usually

-ex. Cytospora sp., Plyllosticta ampelicida

Vector Dispersal

spore dispersal by a vector

-scent: truffles, stinkhorns

-taste: gall rust

Self Propelled Dispersal

spore dispersal by self propelling mechanism

-ex. Pilobolus expands tip until it bursts

Wine

generally derived from fruit juice, usually grapes

Beer

comes from malted barley, can come from other grains in other cultures

Liqour

distilled to get alcohol concentration above 18%

Ale

-originates from UK/Britain

-complex flavor due to many secondary metabolites

-brew at warm temperature

-quick process

-yeast is at the top of the barrel

Lager

-originates from Czech Republic/Germany

-cleaner taste due to less secondary metabolites

-brew at cool temperatures

-aged

-yeast at the bottom of the barrel

Beer Ingredients

yeast, hops, malt, water

Saccharification

turning malt into sugar, also known as mashing

Amylase

enzyme used in saccharification, catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch into sugars

a-amylase

acts at random locations on a starch chain, breaks down long chains

-faster of the two

b-amylase

works from non-reducing end, cleaves off two glucose units at a time

-responsible for sweet flavor of ripe fruit

Noble Rot

(Botrytis cinerea)

wild fungi that infects grapes and draws out the moisture, leaving sweater grapes

Ice Wine

(Eiswein)

grapes harvested, pressed while frozen solid, water driven out as ice shards, produces high concentration of sugar leading to high concentration of alcohol in wine

Sake

(rice and Aspergillus oryzae)

fungi converts starches in rice to sugars

Louis Pasteur

discovered role of yeast in fermentation, also discovered bacteria in fermenting beer that was later used in pasteurization processes

Camembert

-cheese made using Penicillium camemberti

-fungus coats the surface of the cheese

Blue Cheese

-also known as roquefort

-cheese made using the fungus Penicillium roqueforti

-fungus grown in holes created for aeration

Quorn

-meat alternatives

-uses fugus Fusarium venenatum

-slightly less protein than real meat

-less fat, trans fat, and calories than real meat

Soy Sauce

-uses the fungus Aspergillus oryzae

-soy beans are cooked with flour, pressed into cakes, and left to mold with Aspergillus or., then the patties are mixed with salt and water and inoculated with bacteria, left to ferment into soy sauce

Tempeh

uses boiled beans inoculated with R. oligosporus

Oncom

-black oncom uses R. oligosporus

-red oncom uses Neurospora

Ecovative Designs

uses oyster mushrooms to create biodegradable material that is used for a variety of products from packaging to shoes

Mycoworks

uses mushrooms to make leather alternatives

Pileus

mushroom cap

Stipe

stalk of the mushroom

Annulus

ring found on stipe, remnant of the inner veil, only found on specific species

Volva

cup at the base of the stipe, remnant of universal veil, only found on specific species

Fool Proof Four

-Morels (Morchella)

-Puffballs (Calvatia gigantea)

-Sulfur Shelf (Laetiporus sulphereus)

-Shaggy Mane (Coprinus comatus)

Meadow Mushroom

Agaricus campestris

White Button Mushroom

Agaricus bisporus

Chantrelle

Cantharellus cibarius

Bolete

Boletus edulis

Huitlacoche

corn smut/Ustilago maydis

Shiitake

Lentinula edodes

Death Cap

Amanita virosa, phalloides

-toxic compound: phallotoxins and amatoxins (amatoxins are lethal by ingestion)

-edible lookalike: edible Amanita species

False Morel

Gyromitra and Helvella spp.

-Toxic Compound: gyromitrin

-Edible lookalike: White Morel (Morchella esculenta)

Inky Cap

Coprinus atramentarius

-Toxic Compound: Coprine

-Edible Lookalike: Shaggy Mane (Coprinus comatus)

Poisonous Boletes

-Toxic Compound: Bolesatine

-Edible Lookalike: Boletes (Boletus edulis)

Coprine

toxic compound

-effects only occur if consumed with alcohol and only last until alcohol has left the stomach

-symptoms: nausea, hot flashes, headache, metallic mouth taste, numbness/tingling, heart palpitations

Amatoxins

toxic compound

-attacked liver, kidney, intestines

-symptoms may not occur for up to 24 hours

-symptoms may die down before severely relapsing

-symptoms: diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, kidney and liver failure, coma, death

Phallotoxins

toxic compound

-only lethal in injection, not ingestion

Psilosybin

toxic compound

-hallucinogenic compound in the LSD family

-symptoms: laughter, euphoria, hallucinations, disembodied experience, anxiety, paranoia

GMO Methods

agrobacterium, mutagenesis, gene gun, CRISPR

Mutagenesis

-uses x-rays to mutate genes

-select for desirable traits, then breed

CRISPR

Clusters Regulatory Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats

-deletes and edits existing genes or adds genes

Cas9

enzyme that carries guide RNA to the target nucleus, then the guide RNA will match and target a defined site in the recipient genome

Browning Resistant Mushroom

-uses CRISPR to induce cuts in an enzyme family, resulting in the halted production of that enzyme

-deletes a few base pairs in polyphenol oxidaze (PPO), allowing the aging/browning of the mushroom during transportation and storage

Metarhizium anisopliae

produces a scorpion toxin

Colletotrichum coccodes

increased virulence, increased biocontrol agent against weeds

Uses of beneficial fungi

plant interactions, drug and chemical production, food, decomposition, biocontrol, environmental stress tolerance

Predation

Mode of action in which one organism kills and feeds on another

Parasitism

mode of action in which one organism derives derives energy from another

repellents

mode of action in which a substance deters another organism from approaching or settling in an area

antibiosis

mode of action in which the interaction between two organisms where at least one is detrimentally affected

Induced Systemic Resistance

mode of action in which the presence or action of an organism causes a host to increase its own resistance to a pest or pathogen

Competitive Exclusion

one organism outcompetes another when competing directly for space or resources

Entomopathogenic Fungi

biocontrol of insects

Beauvaria bassiana

entomopathogenic fungi

-kills silk worms through white muscadine syndrome which encases silk worms in conidia

-reduces aphid/other insect feeding

Entomophaga maimaiga

entomopathogenic fungi

-pathogen of gypsy moths

-hyphae consumes larvae from the inside out

Nematophagous Fungi

biocontrol of nematodes

Anthrobotrys dactyloids

Nematophagous Fungi

-oligospora

-hyperparasitic

-active trapping mechanism: specialized hyphae swell to trap nematode

Hirsutella rhossilliensis

Nematophagous Fungi

-internal parasite of nematodes

-needs nematode to survive

-passive trapping mechanism: fungal spores stick to nematode and germinate on them, penetrating the nematode

Mycophagous Fungi

biocontrol of other fungi

Trichoderma sp.

Mycophagous Fungi

-opportunistic fungi found in all soil

-produces chitinases and glucanases that degrade cell walls

-protects roots by killing pathogenic fungi

-uses parasitism, antibiosis, and competition

Aspegillus flavus

Mycophagous Fungi

-reduces natural populations of aflatoxin producing A. flavus

-competition exclusion

-treats maize and peanuts

Symbiosis

close association between two different types of organisms in a community, with beneficial or deleterious consequences for at least one party

Mutualilsm

relationship in which two members of different species benefit and neither suffers (+/+)

Commensalism

relationship in which one party benefits while the other gains/suffers nothing (+/0)

Parasitism

relationship in which one party benefits while the other is harmed (+/-)

Ectomycorrhizae

fungus that forms a thick sheath around the root tip and mycelium, growing between the cells of the cortex

-forms short, paired branches

-only infects trees

-does NOT invade the cell

Endomycorrhizae

fungus infecting the roots of plants by penetrating of cortical cells by the mycelium

-do not produce large fruiting bodies

-mycelium ALWAYS gains entrance to the host

-wide range of hosts

-coenocytic mycelium

Hartig Net

area filled in by fungal cells, space between root cells

Mantle

sheath like material surrounding the outside of the root

Arbuscule

nutrient exchange structures designed to increase the surface area between host membrane and fungus

Vesicle

storage structure for the fungi

Soredia

bits of lichen body containing algal and fungal cells that fracture off to reproduce

Lichens

symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae, or photosynthetic bacteria, in which the organisms are intertwined to form one thallus

Foliose

leaf-like lichen

Crustose

crust-like lichen

Fruticose

shrub-like/hairy lichen

Endophyte

endosymbiont that lives within a plant for at least part of its life without causing apparent disease

-improved resistance to herbivores

-improves ability to tolerate abiotic stressors

Laboulbeniomycetes

Labbies

-apparent parasitic relationship, though no harm is known to be caused

-found on the antennae, mouth parts, and other body regions of insects, mites, and millipedes

Septobasidum sp.

-fungus covers insect to create a shelter on a plant surface

-provides shelter from the environment, predators, and provides food below the insect

Leaf Cutter Ants

-ants bring leaves to a fungal garden

-ants aid in decomposition with their excrements and protects the fungus from parasites

-ants eat the fungus

-fungus does not produce fruiting bodies

Termitomyces

-fungal garden growing beneath termite mounds

-termites eat plant material and leave excrement for the fungus

-fungus provides enzymes that aid termites in digestion of plant material

-produces fruiting bodies