Unit 1 Psychology Practice Flashcards

A set of 80 practice vocabulary flashcards based on lecture notes for Psychology Chapters 1, 2, and 12, covering history, research methods, and social psychology.

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior, classified as a social science because explanations must be testable through perceivable and measurable phenomena.

Empirical method

A method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than logic or authority alone.

Scientific method

The systematic procedure for research involving the steps: hypothesis $\rightarrow$ observation $\rightarrow$ experiment $\rightarrow$ data collection.

Hypothesis

A tentative and testable explanation that must be perceivable and measurable to be considered scientific.

Introspection

A process used by Wilhelm Wundt where someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible.

Structuralism

An early psychological perspective, associated with Wilhelm Wundt, focusing on the internal contents of mental processes.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology, associated with William James, that focused on how mental activities help an organism fit into its environment.

Psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by the neurologist Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of the unconscious and early childhood experiences.

Slips of the tongue

Phenomena that Sigmund Freud believed revealed underlying unconscious thoughts or desires.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of psychology pioneered by Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler, emphasizing that the whole sensory experience is different from the sum of its parts.

Behaviorism

A major perspective founded by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner that focuses on observing and controlling overt behavior.

Operant conditioning

A learning process associated with B.F. Skinner where behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.

Humanism

A perspective represented by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers that emphasizes the innate potential for good in all humans.

Client-centered therapy

A clinical approach developed by Carl Rogers where the clinician allows the person seeking therapy to take a lead role in the session.

Triangular Theory of Love

A model of love consisting of different components that create forms of love such as romantic, companionate, infatuation, and factious.

Biopsychology

A subdivision of contemporary psychology that explores how our biology, such as the nervous system, influences behavior.

Developmental Psychology

The specialty area of psychology that studies development across the lifespan, including the work of Jean Piaget.

Clinical psychology

The specialty branch of psychology focused on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior.

Discrimination

Negative actions or behaviors toward an individual based on their membership in a particular social group.

Falsifiable

A requirement for a scientific hypothesis, meaning it must be capable of being shown to be incorrect.

Case study

A research approach that focuses on one person or a very small number of individuals to gain in-depth information.

Naturalistic observation

A research method that involves observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Observation bias

The risk that a researcher may unconsciously skew their observations to match their expectations or research goals.

Inter-rater reliability

A measure of the degree of agreement among different observers who record and classify a particular event.

Survey

A research tool consisting of a list of questions to be answered by participants, allowing data collection from large groups.

Population

The overall group of individuals that researchers are interested in and wish to study.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study.

Archival research

A research method that relies on looking at past records or data sets to find interesting patterns or relationships.

Longitudinal research

A research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time with the same individuals.

Cross-sectional research

A research design where a scientist compares multiple segments of the population at a single point in time.

Attrition rates

The reduction in the number of research participants over time, common in longitudinal studies as people drop out.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings from a sample can be applied to the larger population.

Correlational research

A research method used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, though it does not indicate causation.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

Positive correlation

A relationship between variables where both move in the same direction—as one increases, so does the other.

Negative correlation

A relationship between variables where they move in opposite directions—as one increases, the other decreases.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable cause changes in the other.

Illusory correlations

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship actually exists.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the experimental manipulation or treatment being tested.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a baseline.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations or beliefs influence the results of an experiment.

Single-blind study

An experimental design where the participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group, but the researcher does.

Placebo effect

Occurs when people's expectations or beliefs alone influence their experience in a given situation.

Independent variable

The variable in an experiment that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the manipulation had.

Statistical significance

A mathematical determination of how likely it is that the results of a study occurred due to chance.

Reliability

Refers to the consistency of a measurement or the ability to consistently produce a given result.

Validity

The extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Peer-reviewed journal article

A research paper that is evaluated by other scientists in the field for quality and accuracy before being published.

Replicate

The ability of other researchers to repeat a study to see if they obtain the same or similar results.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals involving human participants to ensure they meet ethical guidelines.

Deception

The act of purposely misleading research participants to maintain the integrity of an experiment.

Intrapersonal behavior

Topics in social psychology that pertain to the individual, such as emotions, attitudes, and the self.

Interpersonal behavior

Topics in social psychology that pertain to dyads and groups, such as aggression, prejudice, and attraction.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate situational influences.

Individualist culture

A culture that values individual achievement and autonomy, often leading to higher rates of the fundamental attribution error.

Collectivistic culture

A culture that emphasizes communal relationships and is more likely to consider situational influences on behavior.

Actor-observer bias

The phenomenon of attributing other people's behavior to internal factors while attributing our own behavior to situational forces.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for positive outcomes (internal attribution) while blaming negative outcomes on external factors.

Just-world hypothesis

The belief that the world is a fair place where people get the outcomes they deserve.

Social Roles

Expectations for how a person should behave in a given setting or group.

Social Norms

The group's expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members.

Scripts

A person's knowledge about the specific sequence of events expected in a particular setting.

Zimbardo’s Stanford prison study

A famous 1971 social psychology experiment that demonstrated the powerful influence of social roles and norms on behavior.

Cognitive dissonance

Psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions.

Elaboration likelihood model

A theory of persuasion that describes the different ways people process persuasive messages via central or peripheral routes.

Foot-in-the-door

A persuasion technique where a small favor is requested first to increase the likelihood of agreement to a larger favor later.

Asch effect

The influence of the group majority on an individual’s judgment, as shown in Solomon Asch's line experiments.

Normative social influence

Conformity to a group norm in order to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group.

Informational social influence

Conformity to a group norm because of the belief that the group is competent and has the correct information.

Confederates

Individuals involved in a research study who follow the researcher's instructions and act as if they are regular participants.

Groupthink

The modification of the opinions of group members to align with what they believe is the group consensus.

Group Polarization

The strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group.

Social facilitation

The tendency for an individual to perform better when an audience is watching than when alone.

Social loafing

The exertion of less effort by a person when working together with a group than when working alone.

Stereotype

A specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of individual traits.

Prejudice

A negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular social group.

Hostile aggression

Aggression motivated by feelings of anger with the intent to cause pain.

Instrumental aggression

Aggression motivated by achieving a goal, which does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain for its own sake.

Bystander effect

A phenomenon where a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress, exemplified by the Kitty Genovese case.