History of the Renaissance through the Industrial Revolution

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the key people, terms, and concepts from the Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, and early Industrial Revolution as described in the provided notes.

Francesco Petrarch

Often called the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.

Dante Alighieri

Renaissance writer; wrote Divine Comedy.

Christine de Pizan

An Italian who lived in France and wrote in French.

Johannes Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

An accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect; another master of the High Renaissance.

Raphael Sanzio

One of Italy's best painters; admired for his numerous madonnas (paintings of Mary, the mother of Jesus).

Cosimo de Medici

Member of a wealthy family that controlled part of Italy and were important supporters of the Renaissance.

Machiavelli

Renaissance author who wrote about power; wrote The Prince.

humanism

An intellectual movement of the Renaissance based on the study of the humanities, which included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history.

Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance man; painter, inventor, sculptor.

vernacular

The language of everyday speech in a particular region.

fresco

Painting done on fresh, wet plaster with water-based paints.

perspective

Artistic techniques used to give the effect of three-dimensional depth to two-dimensional surfaces; viewpoint.

Christian humanism

A movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church.

fundamental

Basic or essential.

salvation

The state of being saved through faith alone or through faith and good works.

indulgences

A release from all or part of punishment for sin by the Catholic Church, reducing time in purgatory after death.

Frederick the Wise

Also known as Frederick III, the elector (or prince) of Saxony who protected Martin Luther and sent him into hiding.

Johannes Kepler

A German mathematician who used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion, which confirmed the sun was at the center of the universe.

Martin Luther

Leader of the reformation; wrote the 95 Theses; founder of Lutheranism.

Erasmus

Scholar who also criticized the church prior to the start of the Reformation.

95 Theses

Martin Luther’s writings against the church that started the Reformation.

Diet of Worms

Event where Luther was excommunicated after King Charles V failed to change his ideas; resulted in the Edict of Worms which declared Luther an outlaw.

Act of Supremacy

Made the king the most powerful secular ruler of the church of England.

Counter Reformation

A counter to the Protestant Reformation where the papacy was reformed and a clear set of doctrines was established to regain power.

philosophers

A person who seeks wisdom or enlightenment; a scholar or a thinker.

geocentric

Earth centered universe.

spheres

In ancient astronomy, any of the concentric, revolving, spherical transparent shells in which the stars, sun, planets, and moon are set.

heliocentric

Sun centered universe.

Galileo Galilei

Made a series of remarkable discoveries including mountains on Earth's moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots.

René Descartes

French philosopher who brought a philosophical perspective to the natural sciences; established a philosophy that dominated Western thought until the twentieth century.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Mathematician who published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, proposing a heliocentric conception of the universe.

Newton

Defined the three laws of motion in Principia that govern planetary bodies and objects on Earth.

Universal law of gravitation

Explains that planetary bodies continue in elliptical orbits around the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by gravity.

Robert Boyle

One of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments in chemistry; identified that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it.

Margaret Cavendish

Author of Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy; critical of the belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature.

rationalism

A system of thought expounded by René Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge.

Scientific method

A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world.

Inductive reasoning

The doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations to test hypotheses.

empiricism

The theory that says knowledge is achieved through observation.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher who believed scientists should not rely on ancient authorities and pioneered the scientific method.

philosophe

French for “philosopher”; applied to all intellectuals during the Enlightenment.

Montesquieu

French noble who wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748), a study of governments and natural laws governing social and political relationships.

Separation of powers

A form of government in which the executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit and control each other through a system of checks and balances.

Voltaire

Intellectual known for his criticism of Christianity and strong belief in religious toleration, fighting against intolerance in France.

Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopedia, a 28-volume collection of knowledge designed to change the general way of thinking.

Laissez faire

Concept that the state should not impose government regulations but should leave the economy alone.

Free enterprise

A system in which private businesses are able to compete with each other with little control by the government.

Adam Smith

Wrote the Wealth of Nations about capitalism and the economy.

Social contract

The concept that an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will and all individuals should be forced to abide by it.

salons

Elegant urban drawing rooms where writers, artists, aristocrats, and government officials gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes.

profit

The amount of money left over after paying for the cost of businesses.

Industrial Revolution

Important changes that took place in the way work was done during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Natural resource

Materials that are provided by nature, such as wood or fossil fuels.

locomotive

Self propelled vehicle that runs on rails (train).

investor

A person who expects to make a profit by lending money to businesses.

Raw material

Matter in its natural condition.

textile

Cloth made by weaving.

import

To bring goods into the country from other places.

Internal combustion engine

An engine that burns gas to produce power.