MIDTERM (LESSON 1) SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 2 WITH INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION INTRODUCTION Special crime investigation deals with the study of major crimes based on the application of special investigative technique. The study concentrates more on physical evidence, its collection, handling, identification and preservation in coordination with the crime laboratory. Special crime investigation involves a close relationship between the prober in the field and the crime laboratory technician. They work together as a team, reacting to and extending one another’s theories and findings both working patiently and thoroughly to solve a crime from their investigative discoveries. The present criminal justice system in our country, the court relies more on physical evidence rather than extra-judicial confession. WHAT IS INTERROGATION? Interrogation is a process of questioning by which police obtain evidence. The purpose of an interrogation is to elicit from the suspect or from his or her relatives or associate's information that they may be suppressing in order to protect the suspect from being subjected to criminal prosecution (Galero-Muftuoglu, 2017, p. 187). Interrogation process is largely outside the governance of law except for rules concerning the admissibility at trial of confessions obtained through interrogation and limitations on the power of police to detain the suspected persons against their will. THREE OBJECTIVES OF INTERROGATION Aside from obtaining information detrimental to a suspect’s case, the following are the three objectives of interrogation: 1. Establish the innocence of a suspect by clearing up facts that seem to point to guilt; 2. Obtain from the suspect or relatives and friends of the suspect: A. The names of accomplices; B. The facts and circumstances surrounding the crime; C. Follow-up leads provided unwittingly, or with ulterior motive, such as faking an alibi; D. The location of stolen goods; E. The location of physical evidence, such as documents, a weapon, or a burglar’s tool. 3. Obtain from the suspect alone: A. Admission – it refers to the express or implied statement tending to support the suspect’s involvement in the crime, but insufficient by itself to prove guilt; B. Confession – it pertains to an oral or written statement acknowledging it. WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW? Interview is defined as a structured conversation where one person or “interviewer” seeks to gather information from one another or the “interviewee” as part of any investigation or intelligence operation. The objective is to obtain accurate and reliable information while respecting human rights; eliciting facts is the aim, not confession. In the process of interviewing the suspects there is the added potential goal of obtaining an admission of guilt or a confession. However, this must not be the primary or sole purpose of interview as even a confession must be substantiated by information and evidence. This will reduce the likelihood of a false accusation and will also enable officers to present stronger case against the suspect, should a confession later be retracted. WHAT IS AN INVESTIGATIVE INTERVIEW? Investigative Interviewing, is a technique developed by practitioners to respond to the large body of scientific evidence that abusive and coercive techniques elicit unreliable information. It uses building rapport with the interviewee, which prevent abusive practices, and also improves the collection and reliability of information. It is a non-coercive approach using open questions to improve the flow of communication and information (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). GOALS OF INVESTIGATIVE INTERVIEW 1. Eliciting more accurate and reliable information during interviews. 2. Strengthening the capacity, efficiency, and professionalism of interviews. 3. Eliminating reliance on unlawful, ineffective, and counterproductive coercive questioning techniques. 4. Providing successful, affordable, and accessible methods and practices with minimal resources. 5. Delivering more effective information-gathering operations. 6. Fostering greater public trust in and cooperation with criminal justice institutions. 7. Ensuring that no person is subjected to coercion, torture or other forms of ill treatment. 8. Protecting the physical and mental integrity of all persons who interact with public authorities. REID METHOD Reid Method is also known as The Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation, is the interrogation technique widely used by police departments. The Reid Technique involves three components namely: 1. Factual Analysis 2. Behavioral Analysis Interview 3. Interrogation (Nine Steps) FACTUAL ANALYSIS It is an inductive approach where each individual suspect is evaluated with respect to specific observations relating to the crime. It relies not only on crime scene analysis, but also on information learned about each suspect. Its goal is establishing an estimate of a particular suspect’s probable guilt or innocence based on such things as the suspect’s biosocial status like: gender, race, occupation, marital status, etc., opportunity and access to commit the crime, and evaluation of physical and circumstantial evidence. It is also intended to identify characteristics about the suspect and the crime which will be helpful during an interrogation of the suspect believed to be guilty such as motive or the suspect’s personality type. BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS INTERVIEW It is a non-accusatory question and answer session, involving both standard investigative questions and structured “behavior provoking” questions to elicit behavior symptoms of truth or deception from the person being interviewed. The investigator first asks background questions, to establish personal information about the suspect and allow the investigator to evaluate the suspect’s normal verbal and nonverbal behavior. The investigator then asks behavior-provoking questions intended to elicit different verbal and nonverbal responses from truthful and deceptive suspects (Inbau, F., Reid, J.E., Buckley, J. et.al., 2013, p.63). The investigator will also ask some investigative questions during this stage. It provides objective criteria to render an opinion about the suspect’s truthfulness through evaluating responses to the behavior-provoking and investigative questions. INTERROGATION (NINE STEPS) An interrogation only occurs when the investigator is reasonably certain of the suspect’s involvement in the issue under investigation (Inbau, F., Reid, J.E., Buckley, J. et.al., 2013, p.99). This is composed of Nine steps, they are: 1. Direct, Positive Confrontation 2. Theme Development 3. Handling Denials 4. Overcoming Objections 5. Procurement and Retention of Suspect’s Attention 6. Handling the Suspect’s Passive Mood 7. Presenting an Alternative Question 8. Having the Suspect Relate Details of the Offense 9. Converting an Oral Confession to a Written Confession NINE STEPS 1. Direct, Positive Confrontation. This is where the investigator tells the suspect that the evidence demonstrates the person’s guilt. If the persons guilt seems clear to the investigator, the statement should be unequivocal. 2. Theme Development. This is where the investigator presents a moral justification(theme) for the offense, such as placing the moral blame on someone else or outside circumstances. The investigator presents the theme in a monologue and in a sympathetic manner. 3. Handling Denials. When the suspect asks for permission to speak at this stage, likely to deny accusations, the investigator should discourage allowing the suspect to do so. The innocent suspect are less likely to ask for permission and more likely to promptly and unequivocally deny the accusation. 4. Overcoming Objections. When attempts at denial do not succeed, a guilty suspect often makes objections to support a claim of innocence, phrases such as I would never do that because I love my job are commonly used. The investigator should generally accept these objections as if they where truthful, rather than arguing with the suspect, and use the objections to further develop the theme. 5. Procurement and Retention of Suspect’s Attention. The investigator must procure the suspect’s attention so that the suspect focuses on the investigator’s theme rather than on punishment. One way the investigator can do this is to close the physical distance between himself or herself and the suspect. The investigator should also channel the theme down to the probable alternative components. 6. Handling the Suspect’s Passive Mood. The investigator needs to intensify the theme presentation and concentrate on the central reasons he or she is offering as psychological justification and continue to display an understanding and sympathetic demeanor in urging the suspect to tell the truth. 7. Presenting an Alternative Question. The investigator should present two choices, assuming the suspect’s guilt and develop as a logical extension from the theme, with one alternative offering a better justification for the crime e.g., “Did you plan this thing out or did it just happen on the spur of the moment?” The investigator may follow the question with a supporting statement which encourages the suspect to choose the more understandable side of the alternative. 8. Having the Suspect Relate Details of the Offense. After the suspect accepts one side of the alternative thus admitting guilt, the investigator should immediately respond with a statement of reinforcement acknowledging that admission. The investigator then seeks to obtain a brief oral review of the basic events, before asking more detailed questions. 9. Converting an Oral Confession to a Written Confession. The investigator must convert the oral confession into a written or recorded confession. The website provides some guidelines, such as repeating Miranda Warnings, avoiding leading questions, and using the suspect’s own language. PEACE METHOD PEACE Model (Planning and Preparation, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure, Evaluation), developed in the United Kingdom in response to a number of documented forced confessions and wrongful convictions in the 1980s and 90s (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). STEP ONE: PLANNING AND PREPARATION It is one of the most important steps in investigative interviewing; without it, interviews may fall before they even begin. Planning – refers to the process of getting ready to interview, both mentally and strategically. Preparation – covers what needs to be ready prior to the interview such as the location of the interview, the environment, as well as technical and administrative matters. Essential Elements of Good Planning • Obtain as much background information as possible on the incident under investigation, including all relevant information on the person to be interviewed. • Assess what additional information is needed and how can it be best obtained. • Follow the legislation and associated guidelines and rules. • Understand the purpose of interview based on an investigation plan recognizing all the relevant and competing hypotheses to be explored, including the possibility that the suspect is innocent. • Prepare the technicalities of the interview (attending to exhibits, logistics, venue, equipment functioning, seating, lawyer, interpreter, and so on) (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). STEP TWO: ENGAGE AND EXPLAIN Engaging the interviewee and building rapport is the first step to encouraging a conversation. It is the most influential factor in ensuring productive interviews (Norwegian Center of Human Rights, 2017). At the outset the interviewee must be informed why they have been brought in for questioning and the formalities that apply. Officers must be aware that being interviewed can make people nervous and conversation that calms the interviewee may be needed. However, interviewers shall not work towards a pretend “friendship” with interviewees. The aim is to engage the interviewee so that a cooperative and relaxed relationship (one that stimulates memory and communication) is sustained throughout the interview (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 23). In engaging with the interviewee, the officer should seek the following (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017): 1. Create an empathetic and respectful relationship from the outset. 2. Explain the reasons, background, rights, formalities and procedure for the interview, including information about audio/video recording. 3. Establish certain ground rules by telling interviewees: • That what they have to say is important so they need to report everything they can and try their hardest no to leave anything out. • Not to edit as they go even if they believe some information has no relevance to the matter being investigated • That they need to concentrate because striving to retrieve memories can be hard work • That they should feel free to speak up if the officer: asks a question they do not understand; asks a question they do not know the answer to; misunderstand what the interviewee has said; asks a leading or inappropriate question. STEP THREE: ACCOUNT Interviewers should allow the interviewee to present their uninterrupted free account of the case or event under investigation; this is after establishing the ground rules for the interview. It is important that the interviewee is provided with the opportunity to present their side of the story, before more detailed questions are asked (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). Three main steps in getting the free account from the interviewee: 1. Introduce and explain the form and purpose of the free and uninterrupted account 2. Hand over the initiative (“give the floor”) to the victim, witness or suspect (as applicable) 3. Employ active listening while the interviewee presents the free and uninterrupted account Active listening assists the interviewer to establish rapport and help elicit a full and accurate account. Use TED’S PIE: Tell me, Explain, Describe Show Me-Precisely, In detail, Exactly. Using this approach helps build rapport and prevents the interviewer contaminating the account being given. The TED’S PIE approach makes use of encouragements/invitations to obtain an account (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). TYPES OF QUESTIONING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that allow the suspect to reply with longer, more detailed responses and lack direction from the interviewer. These can be questions such as; “What happened?” or questions that begin by asking the suspect to “tell”, “explain” or “describe” some event or situation (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p.26) CLOSED QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that require more definite and distinct answers. Examples include, “What time was that?”, “Who else was present?”, “What is his address?” such questions allow more control over what the suspect says and are useful where the suspect has left out information that you need. However, they can limit the account given (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26) FORCED-CHOICE QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that greatly restrict the possible answers to those that you have determined. The question may be “Was it a rifle or a handgun?” when the weapon may have been a shotgun. The suspect may simply pick one of the choices offered in order to please the interviewer or just move the questioning on. You should avoid these as they don’t suggest an open mind, and because answers may lie outside those conceived of by the interviewer. Do not limit the interview in this way (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26) MULTIPLE QUESTIONS Refers to the questioning where the interviewer asks more than one question at the same time. This can easily confuse an interviewee and make the answers given equally confusing to the interviewer. An example would be to ask, “When did he say that and what did he do and who else was present?” (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). LEADING QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that induce a particular reply and may be judged to have manipulated the interviewee. An example would be to ask, “You wanted to injure him, didn’t you?” They can lead the suspect to the point where they agree with what was being said even where they are uncertain or have no clear memory (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). STEP FOUR: CLOSURE As the interview comes to an end, the interviewing officer should explain what will happen next by giving the interviewee appropriate information about the next stages of the process: for example, inform suspects of potential pre-trial detention, tell witnesses whether or not they should expect to attend court, etc. (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). Finally, the interviewee should be asked if they have any questions for the interviewing officer at this stage. This has little or no real effect if the communication has been coercive. However, if the interview has been conducted as outlined above, this question may add to the interviewee’s perception of having been treated fairly (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). The goal of the closure are the following (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017): 1. Ensure there is a mutual understanding of the interviewee’s accunt by reviewing and summarizing it 2. Verify that all aspects have been sufficiently covered by checking that interviewees have given all the information they are able and willing to provide 3. Secure the integrity and dignity of the interview, the legitimacy of any subsequent criminal proceedings, and keep channels open for future communication. STEP FIVE: EVALUATION This is the phase wherein the interviewee evaluates the entire process of the interview and determines if his objectives were met. He also evaluates the method he used in acquiring useful statements from the witness, victim, or suspect and the effectiveness of said method. (Galero-Muftuoglu, 2017, p. 186) If the interview is evaluated by a supervisor, senior officer or colleague, make sure that the interviewing officers are given the opportunity to comment on their own performance, before the evaluator gives their points, starting with what was positive, moving on to what could be improved next time (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017) LESSON 2 SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 2 WITH INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION MENDEZ METHOD The Mendez Principles, also known as the new Principles on Effective Interviewing for Investigations and Information Gathering. It was named after Juan Mendez, the Argentine lawyer, torture survivor and former UN Special Rapporteur. It is a concrete alternative to interrogation methods that rely on coercion to extract confessions. They provide guidance on obtaining accurate and reliable information in full respect of the human rights and dignity of all, including through the implementation of legal and procedural safeguards in the first hours of police custody (IRCT, 2021). The Mendez Method has three parts; Before, During, and After the interview. BEFORE THE INTERVIEW – ENSURING A NON-COERCIVE ENVIRONMENT Creating a non-coercive environment involves the respect and fulfillment of human rights from the first moment of contact between the interviewee and authorities. This allows law enforcement, intelligence, security or military officials to create conditions conductive to gathering accurate and reliable information during the interview, to fulfill State obligations under international law and to protect the lights of the interviewee. Unlawful and unprofessional behavior, and a lack of accountability, at the early stages of contact may taint the overall judicial process irreversibly (Mendez, 2016, p. 14-15). KEEPING THE INTERVIEW INFORMED Showing concern for the interviewee from the initial contact is the first opportunity for creating trust and rapport. This is more likely when an interviewee is given early, explicit explanations of why they have brought in for questioning., which formalities apply, and how the interview will proceed. Explaining procedures and likely activities is an early opportunity to display sincerity, provide predictability, to be respectful and attentive, and promote trust. The right to be informed by the detaining authority about the reasons of arrest applies regardless of manner, or the formality or informality with which an arrest is conducted, and regardless of the reasons for the deprivation of liberty (Mendez, 2016, p.15). Information regarding an interviewee’s rights and how to exercise them should be conveyed verbally, in clear, non-technical, and precise language upon arrest; and it should also be provided in writing by the detaining authority upon arrival at the place of detention in a language and format they understand. NOTIFICATION OR FAMILY OR THIRD PARTY A key safeguard for detainees is their right to promptly notify a family member, friend, or other person of their choice about the fact, place and circumstances of their detention. The detaining authority is responsible for enabling the communication with the third party and recording who has been notified and when the notification took place (Mendez, 2016, p. 16). Foreign nationals who are arrested or detained must be informed immediately of their right to communicate with a consular and diplomatic representative of their country or origin. Asylum seekers should be informed of their right to contact relevant international agencies. Contact is to be facilitated by the detaining authority (Mendez, 2016, p.17). ACCESS TO LAWYER All detained persons being interviewed have a right to a lawyer, including through legal aid, before any questioning by authorities – independent of their status or formal designation. Access to a lawyer is inextricably linked to the protection of rights, prevention of torture and other ill-treatment, and helps to protect against compelled self-incrimination. The interviewee is entitled to a lawyer of their own choosing, or to have one provided for them free of charge when the interests of justice so require. The presence of the lawyer is compulsory for detained children interviewed as suspects (Mendez, 206, p.17). PREPARATION FOR THE INTERVIEWER Once an individual has been identified as a person the authorities wish to interview, the appointed interviewer should start thorough preparations. Being fully prepared increases an interviewer’s ability to effectively communicate with the interviewees, and hence, the likelihood of obtaining reliable information. Before commencing an interview, it is crucial to maximize the investigative and evidentiary value of the information already gathered. When preparing for an interview - and throughout the process – interviewers should exercise caution to avoid ‘confirmation bias’. Interviewers should continually monitor their own emotions about the subject matter and their feelings towards the interviewee, to be able to project calm and self-control throughout the interview (Mendez, 2016, p.19). DURING THE INTERVIEW – ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING RAPPORT Effective interviewers are adaptable, listen carefully, communicate empathy, and adopt the ethos that non-coercive, humans, ethical, lawful and appropriate questioning serves the interest of all involved: the interviewer, the interviewee and the information-gathering authorities. They recognize that the interviewer’s role is to acquire the best possible information for decisions to be made. Only courts determine guilt or innocence. The development of rapport is essential in supporting effective information-gathering. During the interview, rapport entails establishing and maintaining a relationship characterized by: respect and trust; a non-judgmental mindset; non-aggressive body language; attentiveness; and patience (Mendez, 2016, p.20). INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES Active listening helps the interviewer process the information provided by the interviewee. By listening actively, the interviewer shows that they are following what the interviewee is saying and making efforts to understand. The interviewer takes care not to lead the interviewee inadvertently by using verbal or visual cues, including sounds, gestures or questions, which may be interpreted as agreeing or disagreeing with what the person is saying. Accurate summaries of what the interviewee has said may facilitate the positive progression of the interview and assist the interviewer and interviewee in recalling important details (Mendez, 2016, p.21). ENCOUNTERING RELUCTANCE Interviewers may encounter interviewees who are reluctant to talk and therefore should anticipate how they will handle such situations. Not wanting or agreeing to answer questions may be a deliberate choice. This decision must always be respected and has no bearing on the interviewer’s right to the presumption of innocence. Reasons why an interviewee might be reluctant to talk can include general anxiety or uncertainty about the process, especially if the person has never been involved in such a situation before. It is also possible that an interviewee maybe willing to provide information but is unable to do so. This can be because they did not have the relevant information to begin with, or they failed to register the details. Interviewers should not draw negative inferences from the interviewee’s failure or refusal to answer questions and should remain non-judgmental when an interviewee may make admission to crimes or convey embarrassing information (Mendez, 2016, p.21). SUSPENDING THE INTERVIEW It is appropriate and permissible for interviewers to suspend the interview in order to follow-up on information received or conduct additional enquiries. Other reasons to suspend an interview are (Mendez, 2016, p.22): 1. If the interviewee requires medical attention, 2. If a person originally interviewed as a witness becomes a suspect in the course of an interview; and 3. If the lawyer or the interviewee may request a break, for instance in order to rest or to consult in private. A refusal to accept such a request by the interviewer may affect the reliability of information gathered from the interview. AFTER THE INTERVIEW – ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS An effective interviewer should always end the interview respectfully and on a professional note. This increases the likelihood of keeping channels open for future communication, avoids possible misunderstandings and can improve trust in public institutions. The interviewer should review the information obtained with the interviewee and the lawyer, if involved; and, where a written record (as opposed to an audio/video recording) has been made, invite them to sign as a confirmation of the record’s accuracy. An amendments should be recorded, and if relevant, any refusal of the interviewee to sign the interview record. Once the interview has been completed, the interviewer ensures that the information provided during the process is subject to the appropriate level of privacy and of data protection. The interviewer should assess and analyze the following (Mendez, 2016, p.23): 1. The value and reliability of the information obtained and how it fits with known evidence, information gaps and other intelligence gathered. 2. What further enquiries are necessary in order to advance the investigation or operation; and 3. Whether all relevant safeguards were applied effectively. KINESIC INTERVIEW METHOD Kinesic Interview Method involves analyzing a person’s behavior to assess deception (Orlando, 2014). The study of kinesics focused on observable outward physical behavior of the body in order to ascertain the person’s current emotional state and the role the body plays in communicating the information. It states that, by understanding the vocabulary of the body language, along with the diagnosis of a person’s verbal output, an interviewer could more easily assess a person’s truthfulness or deception regarding current issues under discussion (Walters, 2002, p.2). It has two phases: the Practical Kinesic Analysis Phase; and the Practical Kinesic Interrogation Phase. PRACTICAL KINESIC ANALYSIS PHASE During the analysis phase, the interviewer uses several techniques to observe and analyze the subject’s behavior in order to determine the subject’s truthful and deceptive behaviors or at least to determine those areas most sensitive to the subject and, therefore, in need of further attention through verbal inquiry. It recognizes the cues of truthful and deceptive behavior generated by the subject through: 1. Verbal Cues – this involves the identification of symptoms of speech quality and content which give the interviewer the most productive body of data necessary to determine truth and deception. 2. Practical Kinesic Statement Analysis – assessment of truth and deception through the use of verbal cues coupled with methods of human recall and symptoms made self-evident in the statement taking process. 3. Body Language Cues – it refers to the observable body language cues of deception that are unbalanced or inconsistent in relation to the speech cues or emotional symptoms generated by the suspect at the same time. 4. Kinesic Subject Control – it refers to the various techniques available to the interviewer to take control and command of the interview environment. From proxemics to mirroring or the use of enhanced information gathering skills. 5. Confession Behaviors – it is the verbal and nonverbal acceptance cues generated by a subject who is prepared to give an admission of confession. PRACTICAL KINESIC INTERROGATION PHASE Practical Kinesis Interrogation Phase involves the interviewer determining the subject’s frame of mind in response to the interview stress. It also helps the interviewer in determining if the subject is suffering from personality disorder or psychosis. It also helps the interviewer determine the subject’s personality type which enables him to understand how the subject thinks and to determine the subjects’ strengths to be avoided and the weaknesses that can be exploited. Lastly it will help the investigator in determining the defense mechanism of the subject which keeps the subject from having to face the reality of his actions; and by identifying and disarming these mechanisms, the interrogator can obtain admission or confession (Walters, 2002, p.3). GUIDELINES OF CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION According to the PNP Operational Procedures Manual (2011), the duties of the Police during custodial investigation are as follows: 1. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, shall ensure that a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall, at all times, be assisted by counsel, preferably of his own choice (PNP, 2011, p.33). 2. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must inform the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation of the following rights under the Miranda Doctrine in a language or dialect known to and understood by him (PNP, 2011, p.33). a. That he has the right to remain silent; b. That if he waives his right to remain silent, anything he says can be used against him in court; c. That he has the right to counsel of his own; d. That, if he cannot afford one, he shall be provided with an independent and competent counsel; and e. That he has the right to be informed of such rights. 3. If the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation opted to give a sworn statement, the arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must reduce it in writing (PNP, 2011, p.34). 4. The arresting officer must ensure that, before the sworn statement is signed, or thumb marked, if there is inability to read and to write, the document shall be read and adequately explained to the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation by his counsel of choice, or by the assesting counsel provided to him, in the language or dialect known to him (PNP, 2011, p.34). 5. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must ensure that any extrajudicial confession made by a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall be (PNP, 2011, p.34): a. In writing; b. Signed by such person in the presence of his counsel; or c. In the latter’s absence, upon a valid waiver, and in the presence of any of the parents, elder brothers and sisters, his spouse, the municipal mayor, the municipal judge, district school supervisor, priest, imam or religious minister chosen by him. It is important to note that failure of the arresting officer, or the investigator, to observe the above mention procedures shall render the extrajudicial confession inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding (PNP, 2011, p.34) 6. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must, under established regulations, allow the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation visits by or conferences with the following: a. any member of his immediate family, b. any medical doctor, c. priest, imam or religious minister chosen by him or by any member of his immediate family or by his counsel, or by any Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) duly accredited by the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) or by any international NGO duly accredited by the Office of the President. 7. After interrogation, a person under custodial investigation shall have the right to be informed of his right to demand physical examination by an independent and competent doctor of his own choice. If he cannot afford the services of a doctor of his own choice, he shall be provided by the State with a competent and independent doctor to conduct physical examination. If the person arrested is female, she shall be attended to preferably by a female doctor (PNP, 2011, p.34-35). The physical examination of the person under custodial investigation shall be contained in a medical report, which shall be attached to the custodial investigation report. LESSON 3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION AND CONFESSION Admissions and confessions are only legally valid if made voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently, with judicial or extrajudicial distinctions affecting their admissibility. DEFINITIONS AND DISTINCTIONS ●ADMISSION – A voluntary acknowledgment of a fact relevant to a case, which does not necessarily imply guilt. It can be judicial (made in court or pleadings) or extrajudicial (made outside court) and may be used as evidence against the declarant, though extrajudicial admissions are not conclusive and require proof of credibility and relevance. ●CONFESSION – A direct acknowledgment of guilt for the offense charged or any offense necessarily included therein. Confessions are always statements of criminal liability and can be judicial or extrajudicial. CORE LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 1. Voluntariness – the statement must be given freely, without coercion, force, intimidation, or inducement. Any confession obtained through threats, violence, or improper influence is inadmissible. 2. Knowledge and Intelligence – the accused must understand the nature and consequences of the statement. This ensures that the confession or admission is made knowingly and intelligently. 3. Assistance of Counsel – during custodial investigation or after arrest, the accused is entitled to competent and independent legal counsel. Extrajudicial confessions made without counsel may be inadmissible as they violate constitutional rights. 4. Judicial vs. Extrajudicial Confessions: Judicial Confession – Made in open court or in pleadings; sufficient for conviction without additional evidence. Extrajudicial Confession – Made outside court; requires corroboration by independent evidence to be admissible. 5. Relevance and Evidentiary Value – the admission or confession must relate to facts in issue and not be excluded by privilege or other legal rules. Judicial admissions are conclusive, while extrajudicial admissions are evaluated for credibility and weight by the court. 6. Corpus Delicti Rule – a confession alone is insufficient for conviction; the prosecution must establish that a crime has actually been committed. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION Admissions can be classified as judicial (made in the course of judicial proceedings) or extrajudicial (made outside of court). For Judicial Admissions: ●Can be made in pleadings, during trial via stipulations/manifestations, or at other stages such as pre-trial. ●Requirements: They do not require formal proof and are conclusive upon the party making them. They can only be contradicted by showing that they were made through a palpable mistake or that no such admission was made. For Extrajudicial Admissions: ●Must be relevant to the issue at hand. ●May be given in evidence against the maker (as an admission against interest), but are generally subject to regular rules of relevance and hearsay exceptions. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONFESSION Because confessions directly admit criminal liability and carry heavy penal consequences, they face strict constitutional and statutory safeguards—particularly when made outside of court (extrajudicial confessions). To be admissible as evidence in court, an extrajudicial confession must meet the following mandatory requirements: Voluntariness: ●The confession must be given freely and knowingly. It must not be the product of torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other influence that vitiates the individual's free will. Observance of Miranda Rights (Custodial Safeguards): ●If a person is under custodial investigation, they must be proactively informed in a clear, understandable manner of their rights: to remain silent, that any statement can be used against them, to have competent and independent counsel preferably of their choice, and to be provided free legal counsel if they cannot afford one. Assistance of Competent and Independent Counsel: ●The confession must be made with the active presence and genuine representation of independent counsel. ●Any waiver of the right to counsel must be made in writing and executed in the presence of the counsel. Form and Language: ● Extrajudicial confessions must ideally be in writing and signed (or thumb marked) by the confessant. ● They must be expressed clearly and interpreted/read to the accused in a language or dialect that they fully understand. The Exclusionary Rule: ● Under constitutional law, any confession obtained in violation of the right to counsel, Miranda rights, or through coercion is inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding (the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine). Corroboration (Corpus Delicti Rule): ● An extrajudicial confession alone is insufficient to sustain a criminal conviction. It must be corroborated by independent evidence of the corpus delicti (proof that the crime actually happened and someone is criminally responsible). CORE REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSIBILITY Consciousness of Impending Death: At the time the statement was made, the declarant must have been under the fixed belief that death was near and inevitable. Complete despair of recovery must be apparent, though the exact moment of death does not need to be immediate. Subject Matter: The statement must concern the cause and surrounding circumstances of the declarant's impending death. Statements about unrelated past grudges or matters are inadmissible. Case Type Limitation: Traditionally and under most statutory rules (such as the Philippine Rules of Evidence), dying declarations are admissible primarily in criminal prosecution for homicide, murder, or parricide where the death of the declarant is the subject of the charge. Competency of the Declarant: The declarant must have been a competent witness at the time the statement was made (i.e., possessing the capacity to perceive and communicate the event). Declarant Must Be Deceased: The declarant must have actually died, and their death must be the subject of the inquiry. CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS ●The accused has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to confess. ●Any admission or confession must respect due process and fundamental rights under the Philippine Constitution DYING DECLARATION VS. INDEPENDENT RELEVANT STATEMENT Dying declaration and independent relevant statement are both types of statements made by individuals that are considered to be reliable evidence in court. However, the key difference between the two lies in the circumstances under which they are made. A dying declaration is made by a person who believes they are about to die, and their statement is considered to be particularly trustworthy due to the belief that they have no reason to lie. On the other hand, an independent relevant statement is made by a person who is not in imminent danger of death, but their statement is still considered to be reliable because it is made independently of any external influence or coercion. Both types of statements play a crucial role in the legal system in determining the truth of a matter. PRINCIPLES OF A DYING DECLARATION ●A dying declaration is an out-of-court statement made by a victim regarding the cause and surrounding circumstances of their impending death. Under the rules of evidence, it serves as an exception to the hearsay rule and is admissible because of the principle of necessity (since the declarant is dead and cannot testify) and the trustworthiness presumption (that a person at the point of death has no motive to fabricate the truth). INDEPENDENT RELEVANT STATEMENTS ●An independent relevant statement (sometimes referred to as verbal acts or statements relevant independent of the truth of the facts stated) is an out-of-court statement offered in court not to prove the truth of the matter asserted, but simply to prove that the statement was made, heard, or that it had a legal effect. ●These statements are admissible in court if they meet the requirements of relevance and reliability. The declarant must have personal knowledge of the facts stated in the statement, and the statement must be relevant to the issues in the case. ●Because the truth of the utterance does not matter, these statements are not hearsay at all and are freely admissible. CATEGORIES AND EXAMPLES Statements as Verbal Acts / Constitutive Facts: Words that legally constitute a crime, contract, or civil wrong. ●Example: Words of defamation in a libel case, or words offering a bribe in a corruption case. The statement is proven just to show it was uttered. Statements Showing State of Mind / Knowledge / Notice: Words used to establish what someone knew, their belief, or their mental state. ●Example: Telling a defendant that a specific machine is dangerous. This is admissible not to prove the machine is dangerous, but to prove the defendant had notice or knowledge of the danger. Statements Showing Effect on the Hearer: Words that explain why a listener acted the way they did. ●Example: Threats made to a victim to explain why the victim acted in self-defense or fled in fear. Identifications: Out-of-court statements identifying a person (e.g., a witness pointing out a suspect in a lineup), which are relevant to establish identification independent of the factual narrative. COMPARISON Dying Declarations are considered highly reliable due to the belief that a person facing imminent death would not lie. On the other hand, Independent Relevant Statements do not carry the same level of reliability, as they are not made under the same circumstances. Dying Declarations are admissible as exceptions to the hearsay rule, while Independent Relevant Statements must meet the requirements of relevance and reliability to be admissible. Dying Declarations are made by individuals who believe they are about to die, and the statements pertain to the cause or circumstances of their impending death. In contrast, Independent Relevant Statements are made by individuals who have personal knowledge of the facts stated in the statement, and the statements are relevant to the issues in the case. Dying Declarations are often used in cases where the declarant's impending death is a central issue, such as murder trials. Independent Relevant Statements, on the other hand, are used to provide additional context or evidence to support a party's case. In some cases, both types of statements may be used in conjunction to strengthen a party's argument.

Legitimacy Core Topic

Legitimacy of the Judicial Branch and Precedent

Legitimacy and democracy

Chapter 4: Legitimacy, Separation of Powers and the Rule of Law

12 Legitimacy

Sustaining and Reinforcing Legitimacy

Lecture 6: Legitimacy & Monumentality: Kingship, Law, & Society (2000–1600 BC)

Maintaining Legitimacy

Comprehensive Study Notes on Power, Authority, and Legitimacy in Political Science

Set 3A — Historical Context: Westphalia, Sovereignty, Legitimacy & Nationalism

ART APPRECIATION: HUMANITIES, ASSUMPTIONS, AND THE NATURE OF ARTS Art Appreciation helps us understand the meaning, purpose, and value of art. It explores the relationship between the humanities and the arts, the common beliefs people have about art, and the different ways art can be understood and interpreted. I. Humanities and Their Relationship to the Arts A. What Are the Humanities? Humanities are fields of study that focus on human beings, experiences, ideas, values, beliefs, creativity, and culture. The word humanities is associated with the Latin term humanitas, which refers to qualities and learning related to being human. The humanities help us understand human life by exploring questions such as: What does it mean to be human? Why do people create? What do people consider beautiful? How do people express their emotions and beliefs? How does culture influence people’s thinking? How have human ideas changed throughout history? The word humanus means “human” and is associated with being refined, cultured, and worthy of dignity. The humanities are also connected to the philosophical idea expressed by the Greek thinker Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.” This emphasizes the role of human beings in understanding and interpreting the world. According to the Webster Dictionary, the humanities include fields such as philosophy, literature, language, and art, excluding theology and the natural and social sciences in the traditional classification. The study of the humanities includes the appreciation of art, which can deepen our understanding of life, reality, and human experiences. B. What Is Art? The word art comes from the Latin word ars, which means skill or ability. Art is a form of human expression through which people communicate their thoughts, emotions, experiences, imagination, beliefs, and perspectives. Art is not limited to beauty. It can also express sadness, anger, humor, social issues, personal experiences, and different views of the world. Art can be understood as a way of grasping the world, particularly human society and spiritual experiences, rather than focusing only on the physical world. Art can take many forms, including the following fine arts: Painting Sculpture Architecture Literature Dance Music Film Works of art can also be classified as verbal or non-verbal. Verbal art uses words to express ideas and emotions. Example: Poems, novels, and plays. Non-verbal art communicates through images, sounds, movements, or forms without relying primarily on words. Example: Paintings, instrumental music, and dance. Art is also influenced by how an artist uses a medium, applies techniques, and expresses the content of an artwork. C. What Is Art? Art is a way for people to share how they experience and understand the world. It can communicate personal feelings, cultural beliefs, social issues, and human experiences. An artwork can be beautiful, emotional, meaningful, thought-provoking, disturbing, humorous, symbolic, or intentionally ordinary. Therefore, art is not limited to objects that people consider beautiful. Its meaning also depends on the artist’s purpose, the methods used, the context, and the viewer’s interpretation. D. Relationship Between Humanities and the Arts The humanities and the arts are closely connected because both explore and communicate human experiences, ideas, emotions, and culture. The humanities help us understand human experiences, while the arts provide ways to express and interpret those experiences. For example, consider a painting depicting poverty. Art communicates the experience of poverty through images, colors, and composition. History explains the social conditions during the period represented. Philosophy encourages us to think about justice and human dignity. Literature presents stories about people experiencing poverty. Sociology helps explain the social relationships and circumstances connected to poverty. This shows that appreciating art involves more than deciding whether an artwork is beautiful. It also requires understanding the artist, society, culture, history, ideas, and emotions behind the work. E. Differences Between Humanities and Art Arts focus more on the creative and expressive aspects of human culture. They involve creating works that communicate ideas, emotions, and experiences. Humanities focus more on studying, analyzing, and interpreting human experiences and cultural works. Arts often emphasize the form, style, techniques, and materials used to create an artwork. Humanities often emphasize the content, meaning, values, and historical or cultural context of a work. Art can be personal and subjective because people may interpret an artwork differently. The humanities use analysis and interpretation to understand human experiences, although interpretations may also vary. F. Importance of Arts and Humanities Arts and humanities help students become well-rounded individuals who can: Become adaptable by understanding different situations and perspectives. Think creatively by developing original ideas and solutions. Develop critical thinking by analyzing and interpreting information. Become responsible citizens by understanding society, culture, and human differences. Improve communication by learning different ways to express ideas and emotions. Understand others by recognizing different experiences, beliefs, and values. II. Why Do We Study Art? Art Appreciation develops our ability to observe, interpret, analyze, and evaluate works of art. 1. Art Develops Creativity Art encourages people to think beyond ordinary ideas and explore different possibilities. Example: Creating a sculpture using clay allows an artist to experiment with different shapes and forms. 2. Art Communicates Emotions Art allows people to express feelings that may be difficult to communicate through ordinary language. Example: Music can communicate sadness, excitement, peace, or nostalgia. 3. Art Reflects Culture Art shows the traditions, beliefs, lifestyles, and values of a particular community. Example: Traditional Filipino weaving, dances, architecture, and music provide insights into Filipino culture. 4. Art Records History Artworks can provide evidence of past events, traditions, people, and ways of life. Example: Historical paintings can show how people dressed and how important events were represented in the past. 5. Art Develops Empathy Art allows us to understand experiences and perspectives that may be different from our own. Example: A film about poverty can help viewers understand the struggles of people living in difficult conditions. 6. Art Encourages Critical Thinking Art encourages viewers to examine and question what they see rather than simply accepting an artwork at face value. When appreciating art, ask: Why did the artist create this? What does the artwork mean? What message is being communicated? Why did the artist use these materials? How does the artwork make me feel? Does the artwork reflect the society in which it was created? These questions help us understand an artwork beyond its physical appearance. COMMON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ARTS An important part of Art Appreciation is examining our assumptions. People often have preconceived ideas about what art should be. Assumption 1: "Art must be beautiful." Assumption 2: "I can't appreciate art because I am not talented." Assumption 3: "Art is only for talented people." Assumption 4: "Art must look realistic." Assumption 5: "Expensive art is automatically good art." Assumption 6: "Art has no practical purpose." CLASSIFICATIONS OF ARTS Art can be classified in different ways. One common approach is to group it according to the medium or form used. Visual Arts Performing Arts Literary Arts Applied Arts Traditional and Contemporary Art The Nature of Art Functions and Theories of Arts Art has existed in virtually every human society. Across time and cultures, people have created artworks not only for beauty but also for communication, worship, political expression, social identity, education, remembrance, and personal expression. Understanding the functions of art helps explain why art is made, while studying art theories provides different ways of interpreting and evaluating artworks. Lesson 2. I. Functions of Art The function of art refers to the purpose, role, or use that an artwork serves for an individual, a community, or society. A single artwork can perform several functions at the same time. 1. Personal Function Art can serve the personal needs of the artist or viewer. Artists often create art to express emotions, experiences, beliefs, dreams, memories, or personal identity. Personal functions may include: expressing emotions and feelings; exploring personal experiences; relieving stress or emotional tension; developing creativity; expressing identity and individuality; communicating ideas that may be difficult to express through words. For example, a painter may create an artwork after experiencing sadness, happiness, fear, or loss. The resulting work becomes a visual representation of the artist's emotional experience. Art can also affect viewers personally. A song, painting, sculpture, or film may inspire someone, remind them of an experience, or help them understand their own feelings. Example: Vincent van Gogh's The Starry Night is often discussed in relation to emotion and personal experience. Its swirling sky, intense movement, and expressive colors contribute to its emotional impact. 2. Aesthetic Function The aesthetic function of art focuses on beauty, visual pleasure, harmony, creativity, and appreciation of form. Art may be created simply because people enjoy looking at beautiful or interesting things. Artists achieve aesthetic qualities through elements such as: color; line; shape; texture; balance; proportion; rhythm; harmony; contrast; composition. Aesthetic value does not necessarily mean that an artwork must be traditionally beautiful. Some works may be strange, unsettling, or unconventional yet still provide a powerful aesthetic experience. Example: Decorative patterns found in textiles, pottery, architecture, and jewelry often serve both practical and aesthetic purposes. 3. Social Function Art performs a social function when it influences, reflects, or addresses relationships among people and communities. Art can help strengthen: community identity; cultural traditions; shared values; social relationships; collective memory. It can also draw attention to social problems such as: discrimination; poverty; inequality; violence; environmental destruction; human-rights concerns. Murals, films, posters, songs, photography, and public performances are commonly used to communicate social messages. Example: Community murals may depict local history, important personalities, cultural traditions, or social struggles. 4. Political Function Art has long been used to influence political thought and public opinion. Political art may: support governments or leaders; criticize political systems; encourage nationalism; promote revolution or reform; protest injustice; expose corruption; defend human rights. Throughout history, governments have also commissioned art to demonstrate political power. Statues, monuments, portraits, architecture, posters, and propaganda are examples of artworks that may have political functions. Example: Political cartoons often use humor, exaggeration, symbolism, and satire to comment on government policies or public officials. 5. Religious and Spiritual Function Religion has been one of the most important influences on art throughout history. Art has been used to: represent gods, saints, ancestors, or spiritual beings; tell religious stories; decorate sacred spaces; support prayer or meditation; communicate religious teachings; strengthen faith; perform rituals. Examples include: church paintings; religious icons; Buddhist sculptures; Islamic calligraphy; Hindu temple sculptures; Indigenous ritual objects. Many great works of architecture were created primarily for religious purposes, including churches, mosques, temples, shrines, and cathedrals. 6. Cultural Function Art preserves and expresses the culture of a society. Through art, communities communicate their: beliefs; customs; traditions; values; historical experiences; symbols; languages; ways of life. Traditional dances, textiles, music, pottery, architecture, festivals, and crafts preserve cultural identity from one generation to another. Philippine example: Indigenous weaving traditions such as T'nalak, Inabel, and other regional textiles demonstrate local craftsmanship, cultural identity, symbolism, and community traditions. 7. Historical Function Art can act as a visual record of history. Paintings, sculptures, architecture, photographs, monuments, and other works may reveal information about: clothing; technology; social classes; occupations; beliefs; political events; wars; ceremonies; daily life. Although an artwork should not always be treated as a completely objective historical record, it can provide valuable evidence about how people understood their world. Example: Historical paintings may portray important national events and help preserve collective memory. 8. Educational Function Art can teach people ideas, values, skills, or information. Before widespread literacy, paintings, sculptures, and stained-glass windows often communicated religious or historical stories to people who could not read. Today, art continues to educate through: posters; illustrations; films; documentaries; infographics; cartoons; theater; murals; educational videos. Art can make complicated ideas easier to understand because it combines information with visual or emotional experience. 9. Economic Function Art also contributes to economic activity. Artists and creative professionals work in industries such as: painting; sculpture; architecture; fashion; advertising; graphic design; photography; filmmaking; animation; music; theater; game design; crafts. Museums, galleries, concerts, cultural festivals, tourism, and art markets also generate employment and income. Art therefore has both cultural and economic value. 10. Practical or Utilitarian Function Some artworks combine beauty with practical use. Examples include: pottery; furniture; clothing; architecture; jewelry; baskets; textiles; household decorations. A chair, for example, has the practical function of providing a place to sit. However, its design may also demonstrate artistic creativity. This connection is especially visible in applied arts, crafts, architecture, and industrial design. 11. Commemorative Function Art can preserve the memory of important people, places, or events. Examples include: monuments; statues; memorials; portraits; historical markers. Commemorative artworks allow societies to remember historical achievements, tragedies, sacrifices, and national heroes. 12. Entertainment Function Art can also provide enjoyment and recreation. Examples include: movies; theater; music; dance; animation; comics; digital games. Although entertainment may seem simple, it can also communicate important cultural, moral, social, or political ideas. II. Functions of Art Across History and Cultures The functions of art change depending on historical and cultural context. Prehistoric Societies Prehistoric art includes cave paintings, carvings, small sculptures, and ritual objects. Possible functions included: communication; ritual practices; storytelling; hunting-related beliefs; spiritual expression; recording community life. For example, cave paintings depicting animals may have been connected to rituals, teaching, or beliefs about hunting. Ancient Civilizations In ancient societies such as Egypt, Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia, India, and China, art often supported religion, government, and social hierarchy. In Ancient Egypt, art was closely connected with religion and beliefs concerning the afterlife. In Ancient Greece, artists emphasized idealized human bodies, proportion, balance, and harmony. Ancient Roman art often celebrated military victories, political leaders, and imperial authority. l Medieval Period European medieval art was strongly influenced by Christianity. Art commonly appeared in: churches; manuscripts; mosaics; sculptures; stained-glass windows. Its primary purpose was often religious education and worship. Renaissance During the Renaissance, artists increasingly studied: anatomy; perspective; nature; mathematics; humanism. Art still performed religious functions, but there was greater emphasis on humanity, individuality, intellectual achievement, and realistic representation. Modern Period Modern artists experimented with new ideas and rejected many traditional artistic rules. Art increasingly became a way to: express individuality; explore emotions; question society; experiment with color and form; challenge artistic conventions. Movements such as Impressionism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism introduced radically different approaches to creating art. Contemporary Period Contemporary art may address issues such as: identity; gender; globalization; migration; technology; consumerism; climate change; inequality; politics; human rights. Contemporary artists frequently work with photography, installation, performance, video, digital art, and mixed media in addition to traditional painting and sculpture. III. Major Theories of Art An art theory is a perspective or framework used to understand what makes something art and how an artwork should be interpreted or evaluated. Several theories can be applied to the same artwork. Three major approaches are Formalism, Expressionism, and Social Commentary. 1. Formalism Formalism focuses primarily on the visual or structural qualities of an artwork. Instead of concentrating on the artist's biography or political message, formalists analyze how the artwork is organized. Formal analysis examines the elements of art, including: line; shape; form; color; value; texture; space. It also examines the principles of design, including: balance; contrast; emphasis; movement; pattern; rhythm; proportion; unity; variety. Main Question of Formalism How is the artwork visually constructed? A formalist might ask: What colors dominate the artwork? How are shapes arranged? Is the composition balanced? Where does the viewer's eye move? How do lines create movement? How does texture affect the work? How are contrast and emphasis created? Example When analyzing The Starry Night formally, a student may discuss: swirling curved lines; strong contrast between the bright stars and dark landscape; movement created by the sky; exaggerated color; visual balance between the village and the sky. The analysis concentrates on what is visually present rather than the artist's biography. 2. Expressionism or Expressive Theory Expressive theory views art as a means of communicating the emotions, experiences, imagination, or inner life of the artist. The value of the artwork is often connected to its ability to communicate feelings effectively. Main Question What emotion or personal experience does the artwork communicate? Students might ask: What emotion seems to dominate the artwork? How do colors communicate emotion? How does the artist's brushwork affect the mood? What personal experience may have influenced the artwork? How does the artwork make the viewer feel? Example Edvard Munch's The Scream may be interpreted through expressive theory. The distorted figure, dramatic sky, curving lines, and intense colors may communicate feelings such as: anxiety; fear; isolation; emotional distress. From an expressive perspective, the emotional effect of the artwork is particularly important. 3. Social Commentary Theory Social commentary views art as a way of examining, criticizing, or communicating ideas about society. Artists may address issues such as: injustice; poverty; war; oppression; inequality; discrimination; corruption; environmental problems; political power. Main Question What does the artwork say about society? Other questions include: What social problem does the artist address? Who is represented in the artwork? What social groups or institutions are being criticized? What message does the artwork communicate? Does the artist encourage social change? Example Pablo Picasso's Guernica can be interpreted as a powerful response to the suffering caused by war. The distorted figures, chaotic arrangement, and dramatic imagery communicate destruction and human suffering. Through social commentary, the artwork can be understood as an anti-war statement. IV. Additional Art Theories Although formalism, expressionism, and social commentary are important, students can also understand several additional theories. 4. Representational or Imitational Theory This theory emphasizes an artwork's ability to represent or imitate reality. The idea is historically associated with the concept of mimesis, meaning imitation. Questions include: How accurately does the artwork represent reality? Are the human figures realistic? Are perspective, proportion, and anatomy convincing? Does the artwork resemble its subject? Realistic portraits and landscapes are often analyzed through this approach. However, artistic value does not depend entirely on realism because many important artworks are abstract or highly stylized. 5. Institutional Theory Institutional theory argues that something may become recognized as art partly because it is accepted within the art world. The art world may include: artists; critics; museums; galleries; curators; collectors; art historians. This theory becomes useful when discussing modern and contemporary works that may not resemble traditional art. For example, an ordinary object placed in a museum may lead viewers to question: What makes something an artwork? 6. Functional Theory Functional theories emphasize what art does. An artwork may be valuable because it: teaches; communicates; decorates; inspires; entertains; supports rituals; encourages reflection. Under this perspective, the purpose and effect of the artwork are important. 7. Contextual Theory Contextual approaches emphasize the historical, cultural, religious, political, or economic circumstances surrounding an artwork. Questions include: When was the artwork created? Where was it created? What was happening in society at the time? Who commissioned the artwork? What beliefs influenced the artist? Who was the intended audience? Context can dramatically affect interpretation. V. Comparison of Major Art Theories Theory Primary Focus Central Question Formalism Elements and principles of art How is the artwork visually organized? Expressionism Emotion and personal experience What feelings does the artwork communicate? Social Commentary Social and political meaning What does the artwork say about society? Representational Theory Realistic representation How successfully does the work represent reality? Functional Theory Purpose of the artwork What function does the artwork perform? Contextual Theory Historical and cultural background How does context influence the artwork's meaning? Institutional Theory Recognition by the art world Why is this considered art? The important point is that no single theory must completely explain an artwork. Theories provide different perspectives. For example, one painting can be analyzed formally because of its colors and composition, expressively because of its emotional intensity, and socially because it addresses injustice. VI. Applying Art Theories to Specific Artworks Students can use a simple four-step process: Step 1: Describe Identify exactly what can be observed. Questions: What do you see? What colors are present? What people, objects, or symbols appear? What materials were used? Avoid interpretation at this stage. Step 2: Analyze Examine how the elements of art are organized. Consider: line; color; texture; shape; balance; contrast; emphasis; movement. Step 3: Interpret Determine possible meanings. Ask: What message does the artwork communicate? What emotions does it express? What symbols are present? What cultural or social ideas are represented? Step 4: Evaluate Make a reasoned judgment. Ask: Is the artwork effective? What makes it important? Does it successfully communicate its message? Which art theory best helps explain it? VII. Sample Applications Artwork 1: Vincent van Gogh's The Starry Night Formalist Perspective A formalist may focus on the painting's: curved lines; swirling movement; contrasting colors; strong visual rhythm; exaggerated shapes. The night sky dominates the composition and creates energetic movement. Expressionist Perspective An expressive interpretation may emphasize the intense emotional quality of the painting. The exaggerated sky and dramatic colors may suggest powerful emotions, imagination, or inner experience. Social Commentary Perspective Social commentary is less central to this particular artwork because it does not primarily address a specific political or social problem. This demonstrates an important principle: Not every theory is equally useful for every artwork. Artwork 2: Pablo Picasso's Guernica Formalist Analysis Students may observe: fragmented shapes; distorted figures; dramatic contrasts; crowded composition; strong movement; limited color palette. These formal qualities create tension and disorder. Expressionist Analysis The distorted human and animal figures communicate: fear; suffering; panic; grief. The emotional intensity contributes strongly to the artwork's impact. Social Commentary Analysis This is especially important. The artwork is associated with the destruction and suffering caused by war. It may therefore be interpreted as a powerful criticism of violence and conflict. Thus, Guernica demonstrates how one artwork can be studied using several theories. Artwork 3: Juan Luna's Spoliarium The Spoliarium is particularly important when discussing Philippine art. Formalist Perspective Students can examine: dramatic lighting; contrast; composition; scale; human figures; movement; use of color. The arrangement directs attention toward the fallen figures. Expressionist Perspective The artwork may communicate: tragedy; suffering; exhaustion; loss; human vulnerability. Social and Historical Perspective Because of its historical context and later associations with Philippine nationalism, the work may also invite broader interpretations relating to power, oppression, dignity, and historical experience. VIII. Functions and Theories Are Different Students sometimes confuse functions of art with theories of art. A simple distinction is: Function asks: Why was the artwork created or what does it do? Theory asks: How can we understand, interpret, or evaluate the artwork? For example, a political mural may have the social function of raising awareness. However, we can analyze the same mural using: formalism to examine its colors and composition; expressionism to examine emotion; social commentary to interpret its political message. IX. Relationship Between Artist, Artwork, Audience, and Society Art can be understood through four interconnected components: Artist → Artwork → Audience → Society The artist produces the work. The artwork contains visual forms, symbols, ideas, and materials. The audience interprets the artwork based on personal knowledge and experiences. Society and culture influence both the artist and the audience. Because people come from different backgrounds, the same artwork can produce different interpretations. WEEK 3 1. Broad Chronological Development of Art History Art history charts how humanity expresses beliefs, values, and environments over time through visual mediums: Prehistoric & Ancient Art (c. 40,000 BCE – 400 CE): Begins with cave paintings (e.g., Lascaux) and fertility artifacts, evolving into formal artistic conventions in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome that focused on mythology, idealism, human proportion, and architectural grandeur. Medieval Art (c. 500 – 1400): Dominated by religion in Western art (Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic), prioritizing spiritual symbolism and devotional function over naturalism. Renaissance & Baroque (c. 1400 – 1750): Marked by a "rebirth" of classical values, perspective, anatomical realism, and humanism (Da Vinci, Michelangelo), transitioning into the dramatic lighting, emotional intensity, and dynamic motion of the Baroque period. Modern Art (c. 1860s – 1970s): Key movements—including Impressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism—broke away from traditional representation, questioning the very definition and purpose of visual art. Contemporary Art (c. 1970s – Present): Focuses on concepts, diversity, digital mediums, and global issues rather than unified styles, inviting viewer participation and critique. 2. Primary and Secondary Sources in Art History Art historical research relies on evaluating both direct artifacts and academic interpretations: Primary Sources: Direct, firsthand evidence from the time period or artist being studied. The Artwork Itself: The physical object (paintings, sculptures, architecture, textiles) revealing material, medium, brushwork, and condition. Historical Artifacts: Letters, artist diaries, sketchbooks, manifests, contract documents, or contemporary reviews written at the time of creation. Secondary Sources: Analyses, interpretations, or reviews created after the event by non-eyewitnesses. Academic Works: Art history textbooks, peer-reviewed journal articles, biography monographs, and museum exhibition catalogs that analyze primary materials. 3. Art in Its Social, Political, and Economic Contexts Art does not exist in a vacuum; it functions as a mirror and driver of its environment: Social Context: Reflects cultural values, religious doctrines, gender roles, and community identity. For example, medieval stained-glass windows served a educational social function for an illiterate public. Political Context: Serves as propaganda, power projection, or resistance. Rulers throughout history commissioned monumental architecture and portraits to assert legitimacy, while modern artists often use art to protest state policies or social injustices. Economic Context: Driven by patronage, trade, and market systems. The rise of a wealthy merchant class in 17th-century Holland shifted art production away from church altarpieces toward portraits, landscapes, and still lifes bought on an open market. History of Art and Sources of Art In Art Appreciation, the study of the History of Art and Sources of Art helps us understand not only how artworks changed through time, but also why they were created and what they tell us about society. 1. Broad Chronological Development of Art History Art developed alongside human civilization. A simplified chronological view is: Prehistoric Art – cave paintings, carvings, and sculptures created to express beliefs, experiences, and daily life. Ancient Art – Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and other civilizations produced art connected with religion, rulers, mythology, and society. Medieval Art – art was strongly influenced by Christianity and religious institutions. Renaissance Art – renewed interest in classical ideas, humanism, science, and realistic representation. Baroque and Rococo Art – emphasized drama, emotion, movement, decoration, and religious or royal power. Modern Art – artists experimented with new styles, ideas, materials, and ways of representing reality. Contemporary Art – reflects current social issues, technology, culture, identity, politics, and everyday experiences. 2. Primary and Secondary Sources in Art History Primary sources are original materials or direct evidence from the period being studied. Examples include: Original paintings, sculptures, buildings, and photographs Artists' letters, journals, and sketches Historical documents and inscriptions Objects and artifacts Secondary sources are materials created later that analyze, interpret, or discuss primary sources. Examples include: Art history books Scholarly articles Museum catalogs Biographies and documentaries Critical studies of artists and artworks Simple distinction: Primary = direct/original evidence Secondary = interpretation or analysis of evidence 3. Art and Its Social, Political, and Economic Contexts Art does not exist separately from society. The social, political, and economic conditions of a particular period can influence what artists create, what subjects they choose, and how their works are received. Social context – Art can reflect traditions, beliefs, customs, identity, and everyday life. Political context – Art may represent rulers, national identity, political events, or social concerns. Economic context – Wealth, trade, patronage, and access to materials can influence the production and development of art. Key Idea: Art is both a product of its time and a record of human experience. By studying an artwork's history, sources, and context, we can better understand the artwork, the artist, and the society that produced it. WEEK 4 1. The Creative Process in Art The creative process maps the journey from an abstract concept to a finished artwork or craft: Idea / Conceptualization: Sparked by observation, emotion, social issues, or personal experience. The artist or artisan brainstorms, sketches, and researches to refine the core vision. Preparation & Materials Selection: The creator plans the composition and gathers the physical media, tools, and technical equipment required for the project. Execution & Production: The physical transformation phase where skill meets medium. This involves drafting, sculpting, weaving, or painting, often marked by trial, error, and dynamic problem-solving. Refinement & Completion: Final adjustments, detailing, surface finishing, or polishing to ensure the work matches the intended aesthetic and functional standards. Exhibition & Reflection: Presenting the finished product to an audience, allowing viewer feedback, critique, and personal reflection to complete the artistic cycle. 2. Art Mediums, Techniques, and Materials Medium: The primary substance or material used to create an artwork (e.g., oil paint, clay, bronze, digital pixels, watercolor, wood). Technique: The specific manner, method, or technical skill an artist applies to manipulate the medium (e.g., chiaroscuro in painting, coiling in pottery, carving vs. casting in sculpture, cross-hatching in drawing). Materials & Tools: The physical instruments used alongside the medium, such as brushes, chisels, kilns, canvases, palettes, or digital tablets. Artist vs. Artisan: An artist primarily focuses on creating works for aesthetic, emotional, or conceptual expression (fine arts), whereas an artisan is a skilled craftsperson who creates functional or decorative objects (e.g., pottery, woodworking, textiles) using master-level traditional craftsmanship. 3. The Role of the Curator The curator acts as the storyteller, bridge, and custodian between the artwork, the artist, and the public: Selection & Acquisition: Researching, selecting, and collecting artworks or artifacts that align with an exhibition theme or institutional mission. Spatial Design & Presentation: Strategically arranging works in a gallery—considering lighting, sightlines, color schemes, and sequencing—to guide the visitor's physical and emotional experience. Interpretation & Contextualization: Writing wall texts, catalogs, and educational guides that provide historical, cultural, or philosophical context, shaping how the public understands and values the art. Preservation & Stewardship: Ensuring optimal environmental conditions (humidity, lighting, handling) to preserve artworks for future generations. Art and Artisan: Process, Medium, Technique, and Curation In Art Appreciation, understanding how art is made and presented helps us appreciate not only the finished artwork but also the artist's creativity, skills, choices, and purpose. 1. Creative Process in Making Art The creative process refers to the steps an artist goes through in developing an artwork. It may include: Idea or Inspiration – identifying a subject, message, or concept. Planning – deciding the composition, materials, colors, and techniques. Creation – transforming the idea into an actual artwork. Revision – making adjustments or improvements. Finalization – completing and preparing the artwork for presentation. The process may differ from one artist to another. Creativity can involve experimentation, imagination, problem-solving, and personal expression. 2. Art Mediums, Techniques, and Materials Medium refers to the material or form used to create an artwork. Examples include: Medium Examples Painting Oil, acrylic, watercolor Drawing Pencil, charcoal, ink Sculpture Clay, wood, stone, metal Printmaking Woodcut, engraving, lithography Photography Digital or film photography Digital Art Computer-generated images and digital illustrations Technique refers to the method or way an artist uses a medium. For example, a painter may use blending, layering, or brushwork, while a sculptor may use carving, modeling, or casting. The choice of medium, material, and technique affects the appearance, texture, meaning, and overall effect of an artwork. 3. Role of the Curator A curator is a professional who selects, organizes, researches, and presents artworks in a museum, gallery, or exhibition. The curator helps shape how audiences experience and understand art by: Selecting artworks for an exhibition Organizing artworks according to a theme or concept Providing labels, descriptions, and historical information Designing the arrangement and flow of the exhibition Connecting artworks to their cultural and historical contexts Therefore, curation influences how viewers see, interpret, and appreciate artworks. Key Idea Art is more than the finished product. It involves the artist's creative process, the choice of medium and technique, and the curation and presentation of the artwork. Understanding these elements allows us to appreciate both the skill of the artisan and the meaning of the art.

explanations for obedience: agentic state and legitimacy of authority

PLCY 220 Unit Study Guide: Constitution, Legitimacy, and Mass Politics

Power, Authority, and Legitimacy

Key Concepts in Political Science: Government, Legitimacy, and State Functions

Unit 3 Northwest Territory: Location - The region south of the Great Lakes, north and west of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River (modern-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) Settlement expectations - Orderly Grid System: Land was grid-surveyed into square townships (36 square miles) to prevent chaotic land claims. Section 16 of each township was reserved to fund public education. Path to Statehood: Established a 3-stage process for territories to achieve statehood on equal footing with the original 13 states once they reached 60,000 free inhabitants. Civil Liberties & Prohibitions: Guaranteed trial by jury and freedom of religion. Crucially, it banned slavery north of the Ohio River, setting the first federal geographic boundary on the institution. Articles of Confederation: structure of government - A unicameral (one-house) legislature. There was no executive branch (no president to enforce laws) and no national judiciary to settle interstate legal conflicts. importance of Congress - Congress was the sole body of national power. Each state received exactly one vote, meaning small states held equal power to large states Weaknesses - No power to tax: Congress could only request money from states. No power to regulate commerce: Led to interstate tariff wars. Rigid thresholds: Passing major laws required a 9/13 supermajority; amending the Articles required a 13/13 unanimous vote. No standing national army: Left the government defenseless against foreign threats or domestic rebellion. Shay’s Rebellion: Causes - Western Massachusetts farmers (many Revolutionary War veterans) faced heavy state taxes, severe post-war economic depression, and foreclosures on their farms by coastal merchants and courts. Led by Daniel Shays, they shut down debt courts. Outcomes - The weak central government was unable to raise an army to suppress the rebellion; a privately funded state militia finally stopped it. This exposed the profound weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, spreading fear of "mobocracy" among elites and directly prompting the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Whiskey Rebellion: Causes - Poor western Pennsylvania farmers protested an excise tax on whiskey enacted by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to pay off national war debts. Whiskey was used as currency and a primary way to market surplus grain. Unique elements - Unlike Shays' Rebellion, President George Washington invoked his new constitutional powers and personally led a massive federalized militia of 13,000 troops to crush the insurrection. Effects - Demonstrating the immense contrast with Shays' Rebellion, it proved that the new federal government under the Constitution possessed the executive power to enforce federal laws and suppress domestic insurrections. It solidified federal authority but alienated westerners, bolstering the nascent Democratic-Republican opposition. Structure of US Government under Constitution – separation of power - Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces laws), and Judicial (interprets laws) checks and balances - A system allowing branches to limit the actions of others. Examples: The President can veto congressional legislation; Congress can override a veto or impeach the President; the Senate must approve judicial nominations. Federalism - The constitutional division and sharing of political power between the national (federal) government and the individual state governments. popular sovereignty - The principle that political power resides with the people, who sustain government legitimacy through consent via elected representatives. supremacy clause - Article VI; Establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties constitute the "supreme law of the land," overriding conflicting state laws. Issue of slavery: who supported - Southern delegates (e.g., South Carolina, Georgia) fiercely protected slavery as vital to their agrarian, plantation economies. who opposed - Many Northern delegates opposed slavery or its expansion, but prioritized national unity and economic concessions over immediate abolition. position taken by the Founders - The Founders chose pragmatic compromise over moral resolution to keep the Southern states in the Union. They conspicuously avoided using the words "slave" or "slavery" in the text but protected the institution through: Three-Fifths Compromise: Counted 60% of a state’s enslaved population for both congressional representation and federal taxation. Slave Trade Clause: Prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade for 20 years (until 1808). Fugitive Slave Clause: Required free states to return escaped enslaved laborers to their owners. Concepts debated by Federalist and Anti-Federalists during and after Washington’s presidency; be familiar with people associated with each party Era/Context Federalists Anti-Federalists/Democratic-Republicans Ratification Debate (1787-1788) Supported the Constitution. Wanted a strong central government to maintain order. Written defenses: The Federalist Papers. Opposed the Constitution. Feared a strong central government would mimic British tyranny and squash individual rights. Demanded a Bill of Rights. First Party System (1790s) Federalist Party Democratic-Republican Party Key Leaders Alexander Hamilton, John Adams. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison. Constitutional Interpretation Loose constructionism (broad use of the "elastic/necessary and proper" clause). Strict constructionism (the federal government only has powers explicitly stated in the Constitution). Core Vision Urban, commercial, manufacturing hub; pro-British foreign policy; favored a National Bank. Agrarian republic of independent farmers; pro-French foreign policy; opposed the National Bank. John Adams’ Domestic and Foreign Policy – Naturalization Act, Alien and Sedition Acts, XYZ Affair XYZ Affair (1797): French privateers began seizing American merchant ships. Adams sent diplomats to Paris, where three French agents (dubbed X, Y, and Z) demanded massive bribes before negotiating. This sparked anti-French outrage across America and triggered the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war. Naturalization Act (1798): Increased the residency requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years. This was designed to target French and Irish immigrants, who heavily voted Democratic-Republican. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Alien Act: Authorized the president to deport any non-citizen deemed dangerous to national peace. Sedition Act: Made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. Adams used it to jail Democratic-Republican newspaper editors. Marbury v. Madison, McCullough v. Maryland Marbury v. Madison (1803): Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 conflicted with the Constitution. This established the doctrine of Judicial Review, cementing the Supreme Court's power to declare federal laws unconstitutional. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States. The Marshall Court ruled that: The Bank was constitutional via the Implied Powers of the Necessary and Proper Clause. States cannot tax federal institutions ("the power to tax involves the power to destroy"), reaffirming Federal Supremacy. Short Answer: (These are all straight from google overview, just as an fyi) a) Explain the concerns for the nation Washington expressed in his Farewell Address and how they became issues during and immediately following his terms in office. In his 1796 Farewell Address, George Washington explicitly warned the young nation against two main existential threats: the rise of factions (political parties) and entering into permanent foreign alliances. Despite his warnings, both issues immediately fractured the nation during and after his presidency. Domestically, the fierce ideological rift between Alexander Hamilton’s Federalists and Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans hardened into America’s first permanent political party system. Externally, the ongoing geopolitical conflict of the French Revolution forced America to take sides. While Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation in 1793, foreign entanglements escalated under John Adams, whose administration was consumed by the XYZ Affair and the resulting Quasi-War with France. b) Evaluate the issues associated with Adams’ Alien and Sedition Acts. The primary constitutional and political issue of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 was their weaponization for partisan suppression, which directly violated civil liberties. The Sedition Act explicitly restricted freedom of speech and the press by criminalizing criticism of the federal government, drawing widespread condemnation for violating the First Amendment. Furthermore, Federalists utilized these acts to aggressively target their political opponents, arresting Democratic-Republican editors who criticized Adams’ anti-French foreign policies. In response to this perceived federal tyranny, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison anonymously penned the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. These documents introduced the radical constitutional theory of nullification, arguing that sovereign states had the right to declare federal laws null and void within their borders, setting a dangerous precedent for future states' rights crises. LEQ – Be able to analyze the 4 areas of concern presented at the Constitutional Convention, including the arguments made by Federalists and Anti-Federalists, as well as the agreements reached that were included in the Constitution. Thesis Statement: Although delegates at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 originally gathered to revise the weak Articles of Confederation, deep regional divides over representation, state power, and economic structure forced intense debates between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Ultimately, the framework of the new Constitution succeeded because delegates forged pragmatic compromises over congressional representation, executive authority, the preservation of slavery, and federal taxes. Area of Concern 1: Congressional Representation (Large vs. Small States) Debate: Large states favored the Virginia Plan (proportional representation based on population); small states demanded the New Jersey Plan (equal representation per state). Agreement: The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) established a bicameral legislature. The House of Representatives based representation on population, while the Senate granted two seats per state. Area of Concern 2: Counting the Population (Northern vs. Southern States) Debate: Southern states demanded enslaved individuals be counted to boost their legislative seat totals but excluded for federal tax purposes. Northern states argued this was unjust since enslaved populations lacked civil rights. Agreement: The Three-Fifths Compromise dictated that three out of every five enslaved individuals would be counted for both representation and taxation. Area of Concern 3: Executive Branch Power Debate: Anti-Federalists feared a strong executive would morph into a monarchy. Federalists argued a strong executive was vital to enforce laws and avoid the chaos seen in Shays’ Rebellion. Agreement: The creation of a single executive (the President) checked by congressional override powers, impeachment processes, and elected indirectly via the Electoral College. Area of Concern 4: Central Power vs. Individual Rights (The Ratification Pivot) Debate: Anti-Federalists refused to ratify the document because it centralized immense power under the Supremacy Clause without explicitly protecting individual liberties. Federalists argued that separation of powers inherently protected individuals. Agreement: Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights immediately upon ratification, which James Madison drafted during the First Congress to safeguard civil liberties against federal overreach.

Unit 1 - Sources of Authority and Legitimacy

Introduction to Comparative Politics: Legitimacy, Capacity, Regimes, and Institutions

{title=Manual de Derechos Humanos y Garantías (Pablo Luis Manili), flashcards=[{term=Bloque de Constitucionalidad (según Pablo Luis Manili), definition=Conformado en Argentina a partir de la reforma de 1994 y del nuevo paradigma normativo previsto en el artículo 75, inciso 22 de la Constitución Nacional, conformándose un "bloque normativo homogéneo".}, {term=Control de Convencionalidad, definition=Doctrina establecida por la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos a partir del año 2006, que se configura como un "deber" no sólo para todos los jueces nacionales, sino también para el legislador y autoridades administrativas, para ejercerlo dentro de la competencia de cada órgano y conforme a las regulaciones procesales correspondientes.}, {term=Diálogo Jurisprudencial, definition=Interacción del derecho y jurisprudencia nacional (especialmente constitucional) con el corpus iuris y jurisprudencia interamericana, provocada por el dinamismo entre ambos sistemas.}, {term=Bloque de Convencionalidad, definition=Nuevo referente que configura un "bloque de convencionalidad", con implicaciones y discusiones en sede constitucional para definir su contenido, contorno y aplicabilidad, con la finalidad de establecer un parámetro de aplicabilidad mínima para la defensa de los derechos humanos, donde participan todos los jueces del continente.}, {term=Derechos Humanos (en sentido subjetivo), definition=Atributos de la persona humana.}, {term=Derecho Procesal Constitucional, definition=El estudio sistematizado de los órganos competentes para el ejercicio del control de constitucionalidad y convencionalidad y de los procesos de garantía de los derechos humanos y de los derechos fundamentales.}, {term=Derechos Humanos (origen del término), definition=Surge de la frase "derechos del hombre" acuñada en la Revolución Francesa de 1789, distinguiéndolos de los derechos del ciudadano, con la idea de que el hombre tiene derechos por el solo hecho de ser tal, independientemente de su condición de ciudadano.}, {term=Derechos Humanos (según Pérez Luño), definition=Un conjunto de facultades e instituciones que, en cada momento histórico, concretan las exigencias de la dignidad, la libertad y la igualdad humanas, las cuales deben ser reconocidas positivamente por los ordenamientos jurídicos a nivel nacional e internacional.}, {term=Derechos Fundamentales (según Pérez Luño), definition=Aquellos derechos humanos garantizados por el ordenamiento jurídico positivo, en la mayor parte de los casos en su normativa constitucional, que se tratan siempre de derechos delimitados espacial y temporalmente y que responden a su carácter básico o fundamentador del sistema jurídico político del Estado de Derecho.}, {term=Libertades Públicas, definition=Derechos reconocidos en el sistema jurídico, eficaces y protegidos por los jueces, que expresan un espíritu y una moralidad apoyada por la fuerza del Derecho positivo.}, {term=Derechos Morales (según Austin), definition=Una porción del derecho positivo (positive law) o de la moral positiva, formada por normas humanas, legales o morales, que han existido en todos los tiempos y en todos los lugares, diseñadas a partir de la ley de Dios mostrada por el sentido moral o por la razón natural.}, {term=Derecho Subjetivo Moral (según Nino), definition=Se adscribe a alguien el derecho moral de acceder a una situación S cuando el individuo en cuestión pertenece a una clase C y se presupone que S implica normalmente para cada miembro de C un bien de tal importancia que debe facilitarse su acceso a S y es moralmente erróneo impedir tal acceso.}, {term=Exigencias Éticas (Derechos Humanos), definition=Derechos que los seres humanos tienen por el hecho de ser hombres y, por tanto, con un derecho igual a su reconocimiento, protección y garantía por parte del poder político y el Derecho, independientemente de cualquier contingencia histórica o cultural, característica física o intelectual, poder político o clase social.}, {term=Derechos Humanos (definición propia del autor), definition=La expresión "proyección normativa de la naturaleza humana" o "el ser humano como creación sagrada, revestida de juridicidad", que posee los caracteres de inherencia, necesariedad, inalienabilidad, imprescriptibilidad, oponibilidad erga omnes, universalidad e interdependencia.}, {term=Innatos o Inherentes (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Todo ser humano nace con derechos y la única intervención que le cabe al Estado es a efectos de reconocerlos, declararlos y protegerlos normativamente, pero no conferirlos u otorgarlos.}, {term=Necesarios (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Al no depender del hecho contingente de que el Estado los conceda o no, sino que derivan de la propia naturaleza humana, deben considerarse necesarios, en el sentido jurídico de 'necesariedad', es decir, que es ineludible su reconocimiento por parte del orden jurídico.}, {term=Inalienables (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Pertenecen al ser humano por su condición de tal, son inescindibles de su ser y no pueden transmitirse ni renunciarse.}, {term=Imprescriptibles (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Poseen esta característica porque no se pierden con el transcurso del tiempo, ni con el desuso, sea que el sujeto no lo ejerza por propia voluntad o por verse impedido de hacerlo.}, {term=Oponibles Erga Omnes (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Al no depender de concesión ni de pacto alguno que los otorgue, los derechos humanos pueden hacerse valer frente a cualquier otro sujeto de derecho, sean personas físicas o jurídicas particulares, personas de derecho público estatales y no estatales, funcionarios, etc.}, {term=Oponibilidad Erga Omnes Bifronte, definition=Fenómeno en el cual los individuos pueden hacer valer sus derechos ante cualquier Estado (no solo el de su nacionalidad), y cualquiera puede hacer valer los derechos humanos frente a los Estados.}, {term=Universales (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Indica que los derechos son de todos los seres humanos (faz personal) y que deben ser respetados de manera uniforme (faz material) por todos los Estados de cualquier sistema político, religión o costumbres sociales.}, {term=Universalidad Uniforme, definition=Implica que los derechos humanos deben regir para todo el mundo y del mismo modo.}, {term=Indivisibles e Interdependientes (Caracteres de los DDHH), definition=Implica la imposibilidad de jerarquizar los derechos humanos para preferir unos sobre otros, evitando de esta manera el fundamentalismo que sacrificaría unos derechos en aras de otros.}, {term=Derecho al Desarrollo, definition=Integra los llamados derechos de tercera generación y ha sido formulado como "derecho universal e inalienable y como parte integrante de los derechos humanos fundamentales".}, {term=Historia de los Derechos Humanos, definition=Es la historia de la humanidad misma, pues hablar de derechos del hombre es hablar del hombre en sí mismo y en su relación con los demás.}, {term=Ley de las Doce Tablas (Antiguo Roma), definition=Considerada el origen de un texto constitucional por asegurar la libertad, la propiedad y la protección de los derechos del ciudadano.}, {term=Curator Civitatis, definition=Instituido por el emperador Trajano (98-117 d. C.), a quien se encomendó la protección de los niños y de las clases más humildes contra las autoridades.}, {term=Defensor Plebis, definition=Creado por Valentiniano I (364-375) con la finalidad de simplificar la administración de justicia y acabar con los abusos de poder.}, {term=Fueros, definition=En castellano antiguo, "agujeros" o porciones del territorio donde el monarca carecía del poder que tenía en otros, representando el reconocimiento de determinados derechos.}, {term=Carta Magna Inglesa de 1215, definition=Documento impuesto por los barones y el clero al rey Juan Sin Tierra, que contiene el reconocimiento escrito de ciertos derechos esenciales para evitar abusos de poder, e introduce mecanismos de garantía y una forma embrionaria de división de poder y control al gobernante.}, {term=Declaración de Filadelfia de 1776, definition=Declaración de independencia redactada principalmente por Jefferson, que sintetiza las directrices y los principios rectores de que todos los hombres han sido creados iguales, tienen derechos inalienables (vida, libertad, búsqueda de la felicidad) y que los gobiernos se instituyen para garantizarlos.}, {term=Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano (Francia, 1789), definition=Documento que distingue entre el carácter de persona humana y ciudadano, afirmando que el hombre posee derechos por el solo hecho de haber nacido, independientemente de su condición de ciudadano de un país determinado.}, {term=Principio de Unidad del Derecho Público (según Mirkine Guetzevitch), definition=La adopción de la doctrina monista en la recepción del derecho internacional por el derecho interno, introduciendo en los textos constitucionales diversos temas de Derecho Internacional Público (DIP).}, {term=Constitucionalismo Clásico o Liberal (siglo XIX), definition=Período caracterizado por una ideología liberal individualista, democracia política, derechos civiles y políticos consagrados, un rol abstencionista y pasivo del Estado, resultando en un Estado de Derecho.}, {term=Derechos de Primera Generación, definition=Derechos propios del constitucionalismo clásico, incorporados en las Constituciones entre 1787 y principios del siglo XX, principalmente de carácter civil y político.}, {term=Cuestión Social, definition=Nuevo conflicto surgido en la sociedad entre las fuerzas del trabajo y del capital, como producto de los efectos de la Revolución Industrial, el maquinismo, las migraciones internas y la superpoblación de las ciudades.}, {term=Constitucionalismo Social (principios del siglo XX), definition=Período iniciado con la Constitución mexicana de 1917, basado en una ideología de solidaridad, democracia social, derechos económicos y sociales consagrados, un rol activo del Estado (Estado de Bienestar) y una política económica monetarista (Keynes), resultando en un Estado Social de Derecho.}, {term=Doctrina Social de la Iglesia, definition=Conjunto de enseñanzas y principios que la Iglesia católica ha desarrollado para abordar problemas sociales, llamando la atención sobre el conflicto entre el capital y el trabajo (ej. encíclicas Rerum Novarum y Quadragesimo Anno).}, {term=Nacimiento del DIDH (Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos), definition=Ocurrió a partir de 1945, cuando la comunidad internacional comenzó a preocuparse por crear un sistema que sirviera de barrera y contención a los gobiernos despóticos que avasallaban las normas de derecho interno, tras observar la insuficiencia de los regímenes de protección nacionales.}, {term=DUDH (Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos de 1948), definition=Calificada por René Cassin como "un elemento del patrimonio común a todos los pueblos y a todas las generaciones", que consagró derechos humanos con alcance universal tras la creación de la ONU.}, {term=Derecho de la Carta (con DUDH), definition=Una interpretación auténtica de los términos de la Carta de la ONU, realizada por su máximo órgano deliberativo, que entiende la DUDH como una explicitación de sus normas, dándole fuerza normativa ya desde su sanción.}, {term=Genocidio (según Convención para la Prevención y Sanción del Delito de Genocidio), definition=Delito definido en la Convención adoptada un día antes de la DUDH, en la cual los Estados se comprometieron a adoptar medidas legislativas para establecer sanciones penales eficaces contra personas culpables de genocidio, llenando un vacío normativo encontrado en los juicios de Núremberg y Tokio.}, {term=Principios Reconocidos por las Naciones Civilizadas (según CIJ), definition=Son principios obligatorios para todos los Estados al margen incluso de todo vínculo convencional, como lo dictaminó la CIJ en su OC de mayo de 1951, sobre la Convención para la Prevención y Sanción del Delito de Genocidio.}, {term=CEDH (Convención Europea de Derechos Humanos de 1950), definition=Instrumento suscrito en Roma, que tiene como propósito "tomar las primeras medidas adecuadas para asegurar la garantía colectiva de alguno de los derechos enunciados en la Declaración Universal".}, {term=PIDCP (Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos de 1966), definition=Uno de los Pactos adoptados bajo los auspicios de la ONU que, junto con el PIDESC, busca dar mayor precisión a los términos de la DUDH y codificar en tratados internacionales la mayoría de sus normas.}, {term=PIDESC (Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales de 1966), definition=Uno de los Pactos adoptados bajo los auspicios de la ONU que, junto con el PIDCP, busca dar mayor precisión a los términos de la DUDH y codificar en tratados internacionales la mayoría de sus normas.}, {term=Comité de Derechos Humanos (creado por PIDCP), definition=Órgano destinado a analizar los informes periódicos que cada Estado parte debe remitirle sobre la puesta en práctica del pacto, y a recibir comunicaciones interestatales por incumplimiento del mismo.}, {term=Personalidad Jurídica Internacional del Individuo, definition=Germen de reconocimiento que se manifiesta en el protocolo facultativo del PIDCP, al permitir a las personas la presentación de peticiones individuales por violaciones al pacto.}, {term=Mecanismos Extra-Convencionales de Protección de los Derechos Humanos, definition=Mecanismos instituidos por las resoluciones N° 1235 de 1967 y 1503 de 1970 del Consejo Económico y Social de la ONU, aplicables a Estados que no han ratificado los Pactos en casos de violación notoria y sistemática de derechos humanos.}, {term=PSJCR (Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos o Pacto de San José de Costa Rica de 1969), definition=Convención que codificó en un tratado la mayoría de los derechos contenidos en la declaración, y que creó la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos.}, {term=Corte IDH (Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos), definition=Órgano creado por el PSJCR, que entró en funciones en 1979 con competencia consultiva y contenciosa, siendo la Comisión o los Estados los únicos habilitados para ocurrir ante ella en casos contenciosos.}, {term=Desaparición Forzada de Personas (según Corte IDH), definition=Concepto delineado por la Corte IDH en el caso "Velázquez Rodríguez" de 1988, que sirvió de impulso para que se adoptara la CIDFP en 1994.}, {term=Derechos de Tercera Generación, definition=Derechos que tuvieron su origen en el derecho internacional (no en las Constituciones de los Estados), incluyendo el derecho a la paz, al desarrollo y a la autodeterminación de los pueblos, y que se centran en el colectivo humano en lugar del individuo.}, {term=Constitucionalización del DIDH, definition=Tendencia en la cual las Constituciones de varios Estados otorgan una jerarquía privilegiada a los instrumentos internacionales de protección de derechos humanos, especialmente a partir de la década de 1970.}, {term=Estado de Bienestar, definition=Rol activo del Estado en el constitucionalismo social, donde no solo brinda prestaciones, sino que mitiga desigualdades, interviene en conflictos sociales, participa en la economía y neutraliza efectos disfuncionales del desarrollo económico no controlado.}, {term=Derechos de Segunda Generación, definition=Derechos que permiten al individuo colocarse en condiciones de igualdad frente al Estado con el objeto de reclamar a la autoridad el deber de protegerlos, principalmente derechos económicos, sociales y culturales.}, {term=DIDH (definición ampliada), definition=Rama del derecho internacional, con fuentes en tratados, costumbres y principios generales de derecho, que se ocupa de la promoción y protección de las libertades fundamentales de la persona y grupos humanos, mediante consagración normativa y órganos de control, y que se nutre y enriquece del derecho interno cuando este provee una protección más amplia.}, {term=Presunción de Auto-Ejecutividad (Principios del DIDH), definition=La aplicación inmediata de las normas contenidas en los tratados de derechos humanos en el derecho interno, sin necesidad de una ley interna que la reglamente, salvo normas ineludiblemente programáticas.}, {term=Subsidiariedad (Principios del DIDH), definition=Principio por el cual los sistemas internacionales de protección de derechos humanos funcionan de forma subsidiaria al sistema judicial de cada Estado, requiriendo el agotamiento previo de los recursos judiciales internos antes de acudir a los órganos internacionales.}, {term=Principio de No Intervención o No Injerencia, definition=Principio básico del derecho internacional general que establece que ningún Estado ni grupo de Estados puede inmiscuirse en los asuntos internos de otros Estados.}, {term=Progresividad (Principios del DIDH), definition=Tendencia manifiesta hacia la extensión de los derechos humanos de modo continuado e irreversible, tanto en número y contenido como en eficacia y vigor, refiriéndose al incremento permanente de la cantidad de derechos protegidos y alcance reconocido.}, {term=Provisión de un Estándar Mínimo de Protección (Principios del DIDH), definition=El DIDH establece pautas mínimas (cuantitativas y cualitativas) a las que los Estados se obligan para garantizar derechos a las personas sujetas a su jurisdicción, permitiendo reconocer más derechos o en mayor medida que los instrumentos internacionales.}, {term=Principio Pro Homine, definition=Principio según el cual el intérprete debe elegir la norma más benéfica para el sistema de derechos humanos, sin considerar si está contenida en un tratado, la constitución o la ley.}, {term=Irreversibilidad (Principios del DIDH), definition=La imposibilidad de desconocer la condición de un derecho como inherente a la persona humana una vez que el Estado lo ha reconocido en un instrumento internacional, obligando al Estado a seguir reconociendo ese derecho aun si denuncia el tratado.}, {term=Cláusula de Derechos Implícitos o No Enumerados, definition=Cláusula que hace referencia de manera expresa o implícita a la dignidad de la persona humana como fuente de derechos.}, {term=Convergencia con el Derecho Interno (Principios del DIDH), definition=Existe una permeabilidad especial y acentuada entre esta rama del derecho internacional y el derecho interno en general, complementándose, influyéndose y enriqueciéndose mutuamente, donde el derecho internacional se internaliza y el derecho interno se internacionaliza.}, {term=Costumbre (como fuente de DIP en DIDH), definition=Mecanismo de creación de DIP donde dos o más Estados se comportan de forma reiterada, constante, uniforme y prolongada de una determinada manera, con la conciencia de que hacerlo es jurídicamente necesario. La práctica es interna y se da respecto de personas bajo su jurisdicción.}, {term=Tratados, definition=Acuerdos de voluntades de dos o más sujetos de derecho internacional, destinados a regular sus derechos y obligaciones en ese ámbito.}, {term=Tratados-Ley, definition=Tipo de tratados que establecen normas generales que reglamentan las conductas futuras de las partes, en lugar de regir solamente sus relaciones mutuas.}, {term=Principio de Reciprocidad (en tratados de DDHH), definition=Principio que no se aplica a los tratados de derechos humanos, lo cual incide directamente sobre sus modos de terminación.}, {term=Reserva (a un tratado), definition=Manifestación unilateral que un Estado formula al momento de obligarse por un tratado, con el fin de modificar o excluir la aplicación de algunas de sus normas respecto de sí.}, {term=Principios Generales de Derecho (como fuente del DIP), definition=Normas que se reiteran de país en país en las legislaciones internas, constituyendo pilares de cada rama del derecho interno, y que al ser aplicadas por los Estados en su territorio se presume que también se aplicarán en sus relaciones internacionales, transformándose en normas jurídicas internacionales.}, {term=Ius Cogens, definition=Normas imperativas que no pueden dejarse de lado por la voluntad de las partes, imponiéndose a la comunidad internacional independientemente de su aceptación expresa o tácita, basándose en el principio de bien común (ej. buena fe, cumplimiento de obligaciones).}, {term=Declaraciones (de AG ONU o OEA), definition=Instrumentos que se adoptan por consenso en organismos internacionales, sin seguir los pasos típicos de los tratados y con la sola voluntad del Poder Ejecutivo, con distinto grado de obligatoriedad que los tratados.}, {term=Derecho de la Carta (ONU - sobre resoluciones AG), definition=Conjunto de normas generadas a partir de la Carta y en el seno de la organización, que son exigibles a los Estados miembros por su sola condición de tales.}, {term=Incorporación al Derecho Internacional Consuetudinario (DUDH), definition=Tendencia doctrinaria que fundamenta la obligatoriedad de la DUDH en que, a lo largo de los años, ha sido investida por la comunidad internacional de una autoridad tal que ningún miembro puede desatender los derechos que consagra.}, {term=Jurisprudencia (como fuente del DIDH), definition=Aunque en DIP es un método auxiliar, en DIDH su carácter se enriquece, ya que la labor de los órganos internacionales de promoción y protección ha sido fundamental en la formación y desarrollo de la materia.}, {term=Opiniones Consultivas (OC) de la Corte IDH, definition=Facultad de la Corte IDH, cuyo ejercicio le ha dado prestigio y trascendencia, transformándola en un foro de docencia al emitir pronunciamientos sobre temas fundamentales del sistema interamericano.}, {term=Constituciones Nacionales (como fuente de DDHH en Derecho Interno), definition=Protegen los derechos de dos modos: declarándolos y consagrando sus garantías; y organizando un sistema de división de poderes con frenos y contrapesos recíprocos.}, {term=Leyes Nacionales (como fuente de DDHH en Derecho Interno), definition=Desarrollan y operativizan los grandes trazos delineados por las Constituciones en la protección de derechos, reglamentando derechos y obligaciones y viabilizando el acceso a la justicia.}, {term=Derecho Internacional Humanitario (DIH), definition=Cuerpo de normas internacionales, de origen convencional o consuetudinario, aplicable en conflictos armados nacionales o internacionales, que limita el derecho de las partes en conflicto a elegir los métodos de guerra y protege a las personas y bienes afectados.}, {term=Nacimiento de los DDHH, definition=1945.}, {term=Nacimiento del DIH, definition=1864.}, {term=Régimen del DDHH, definition=Rige siempre.}, {term=Régimen del DIH, definition=Rige en estado de guerra o emergencia.}, {term=Aplicación del DDHH, definition=Subsidiaria.}, {term=Aplicación del DIH, definition=Directa.}, {term=Sujetos Protegidos por el DDHH, definition=Todos los seres humanos.}, {term=Sujetos Protegidos por el DIH, definition=Combatientes, heridos, prisioneros.}, {term=Sujetos Legitimados por el DDHH, definition=Las personas físicas.}, {term=Sujetos Legitimados por el DIH, definition=Los Estados.}, {term=Sujeto Pasivo del DDHH, definition=Estado.}, {term=Sujeto Pasivo del DIH, definition=Estados y beligerantes.}, {term=Responsable por violación del DDHH, definition=Estado.}, {term=Responsable por violación del DIH, definition=Estado y jerarcas.}, {term=Órganos del DDHH, definition=Permanentes.}, {term=Órganos del DIH, definition=Ad hoc.}, {term=Diplomacia Humanitaria, definition=La intermediación o asesoramiento que el Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja brinda a las partes en un conflicto armado.}, {term=Derechos Fundamentales (vs. Derechos Humanos), definition=El término "derechos fundamentales" se reserva para los protegidos en las constituciones, mientras que "derechos humanos" se usa para los protegidos internacionalmente.}, {term=Dualismo (Teoría de recepción del Derecho Internacional), definition=Teoría según la cual el derecho internacional y el derecho interno son dos ramas desconectadas, y para aplicar una norma internacional en el ámbito interno, el Estado debe dictar una ley receptora o de transformación.}, {term=Monismo (Teoría de recepción del Derecho Internacional), definition=Teoría según la cual el derecho internacional es derecho en el mismo sentido que el derecho nacional, e impone sanciones. Sostiene que las normas de derecho internacional son directamente aplicables en el ámbito interno sin necesidad de recepción o incorporación.}, {term=Primacía del Derecho Internacional (Monismo), definition=Variante del monismo, defendida por Hans Kelsen, que sostiene que el derecho internacional se encuentra por encima del interno y le da a este su fuente de validez.}, {term=Principio: Un Estado no puede prevalerse de su derecho interno para incumplir una obligación internacional, definition=Principio según el cual "Un Estado no podrá invocar frente a otro Estado su propia constitución para sustraerse a las obligaciones que le imponen el derecho internacional o los tratados en vigor" (Art. 27 de la Convención de Viena sobre el Derecho de los Tratados).}, {term=Principio: El derecho interno es un simple hecho para el DIP, definition=Principio establecido por la Corte Permanente de Justicia Internacional, que sostiene que "para el derecho internacional y para la Corte que es el órgano de éste, las leyes nacionales son simples hechos, manifestaciones de la voluntad y de la actividad del Estado, al igual que las decisiones judiciales o las medidas administrativas".}, {term=Principio: El Estado que asume un compromiso internacional debe adecuar su legislación interna a este, definition=Una consecuencia directa de las normas internacionales, que establece que "un Estado que ha contraído válidamente obligaciones internacionales está obligado a introducir en su legislación las modificaciones que sean necesarias para asegurar la ejecución de los compromisos asumidos".}, {term=Principio de Primacía del Derecho Internacional, definition=Una abstracción que surge de las normas jurídicas fundamentales del derecho internacional, por la cual el derecho internacional prevalece sobre el derecho interno.}, {term=DIP con Jerarquía Supraconstitucional, definition=Un sistema, considerado un mito, donde el contenido de un tratado podría diferenciarse de ciertos contenidos de la Constitución, como se citaba en el Art. 63 de la Constitución holandesa de 1956 (modificado posteriormente).}, {term=DIP con Jerarquía Constitucional, definition=Sistema donde el Derecho Internacional Público (DIP) solo se observa con jerarquía constitucional respecto del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos (DIDH), y no de todo el DIP.}, {term=DIP con Jerarquía Supralegal, definition=El sistema utilizado por la inmensa mayoría de las Constituciones, donde los tratados se colocan expresamente por encima de las leyes pero por debajo de la Constitución (ej. Alemania, Italia, Francia, España).}, {term=DIP con Jerarquía Legal, definition=Sistema donde el derecho internacional tiene el mismo rango que las leyes nacionales, lo que en la práctica lo deja a merced de leyes posteriores que podrían derogar tratados anteriores, haciendo que el derecho internacional sea inferior a las leyes (ej. Estados Unidos, México).}, {term=DIDH como Pauta Interpretativa del Sistema de Derechos, definition=Mecanismo por el cual algunas Constituciones no asignan jerarquía o rigidez a las normas del DIDH, sino que únicamente se refieren a ellas como pautas para interpretar las normas constitucionales (ej. España, Perú).}, {term=Apertura Constitucional al Derecho Internacional y Europeo de los Derechos Humanos (España), definition=Concepto derivado del Art. 10.2 de la Constitución Española de 1978, donde las normas sobre derechos fundamentales y libertades se interpretan de conformidad con la DUDH y los tratados internacionales ratificados por España.}, {term=Estado Internacionalmente Limitado, definition=Concepto que implica la adecuación de la actuación de los intérpretes de la Constitución a los contenidos de los tratados internacionales de DDHH, que se convierten en pauta hermenéutica de la regulación de derechos y libertades.}, {term=Interpretación Conforme (o Interpretación Internacionalmente Adecuada), definition=Principio que se refiere a la sustancia de los derechos fundamentales contemplados en la Constitución, buscando que sea compatible con lo establecido en el instrumento internacional.}, {term=DIDH como Fuente Colateral de Derechos y Garantías, definition=Mecanismo por el cual varias Constituciones se refieren a los tratados y declaraciones de derechos humanos al enumerar las fuentes de derechos y garantías, pero sin reconocerles expresamente jerarquía alguna en el ámbito interno (ej. Portugal, Chile, Paraguay).}, {term=DIDH con Jerarquía Constitucional Limitada, Subordinada al Principio Pro Homine, definition=Sistema por el cual algunas Constituciones consagran la jerarquía constitucional de los tratados de derechos humanos de forma relativa, aplicándose las normas internacionales a la par de la Constitución siempre y cuando sean más favorables para la persona (ej. Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia).}, {term=Bloque de Constitucionalidad (Colombia), definition=Concepto que permite armonizar principios y mandatos aparentemente en contradicción de la Constitución con normas y principios que, sin aparecer formalmente en el articulado constitucional, son utilizados como parámetros del control de constitucionalidad de las leyes, por haber sido integrados normativamente por mandato constitucional.}, {term=Derecho de la Constitución (según Rodolfo Piza Escalante), definition=Criterio fundante del control de constitucionalidad en Costa Rica, que comprende normas, principios y valores consagrados por la Constitución formal, material o el DIDH, más allá de los preceptos textuales.}, {term=Bloque de Libertades Públicas, definition=Término utilizado para referirse al conjunto de libertades contenidas en la Constitución y en los instrumentos internacionales.}, {term=Art. 31 CN (Argentina), definition=Establece que la Constitución, las leyes de la Nación y los tratados con potencias extranjeras son la ley suprema de la Nación, y las autoridades provinciales están obligadas a conformarse a ellas.}, {term=Bloque Nacional (Argentina), definition=Conjunto de normas formado por la Constitución, los tratados y las leyes federales (incluidas las leyes comunes), que se ubica por encima de los ordenamientos jurídicos locales (provinciales, municipales y CABA) para mantener la unidad de los Estados federados.}, {term=Tratados como Fuente Autónoma de Derecho (Argentina), definition=No necesitan el dictado de una ley para incorporarse al derecho interno, ya que el Art. 31 de la CN cumple esa función de forma genérica y a priori para todos los tratados vigentes.}, {term=Art. 27 CN (Argentina), definition=Establece que el Gobierno Federal debe afianzar sus relaciones de paz y comercio con potencias extranjeras mediante tratados que estén en conformidad con los principios de derecho público establecidos en esta Constitución, los cuales comprenden los principios consagrados en los tratados de derechos humanos con jerarquía constitucional.}, {term=Art. 75, inc. 22 CN (Argentina, post-1994), definition=Disposición que establece que los tratados y concordatos tienen jerarquía superior a las leyes, y que ciertos instrumentos internacionales de derechos humanos tienen jerarquía constitucional, entendiéndose complementarios de los derechos y garantías ya reconocidos.}, {term=Derecho Internacional "No Convencional", definition=Aquellas normas que no surgen de tratados sino de la costumbre y los principios generales del Derecho Internacional Público.}, {term=Norma Operativa (DIP), definition=Norma contenida en un tratado que puede aplicarse a un caso concreto sin necesidad de una ley interna que la reglamente, a diferencia de las normas programáticas.}, {term=Ley Posterior Deroga a Anterior (Argentina, pre-1994 jurisprudencia), definition=Principio jurisprudencial de la CSJN (ej. caso "Martín y Cía. Ltda. SA" de 1963) según el cual los tratados y las leyes estaban en igualdad jerárquica, y las normas posteriores derogaban a las anteriores, lo que dejaba los tratados a merced de las leyes.}, {term=Teoría del Fruto del Árbol Malo (Argentina), definition=Doctrina jurisprudencial (ej. caso "Fiorentino" de 1984) que establece que si un procedimiento (como un allanamiento) es inválido, la prueba obtenida a través de él no puede utilizarse para condenar a un imputado, ya que el Estado no puede violar la Constitución para obtener pruebas.}, {term=Instrumentos Generales (con jerarquía constitucional en Argentina), definition=La DADDH, la DUDH, el PIDESC, el PIDCP, el Protocolo Facultativo del PIDCP y el PSJCR.}, {term=Tratados Específicos (con jerarquía constitucional en Argentina), definition=La Convención contra el Genocidio, la CEDR, la Convención contra la Tortura y Otros Tratos o Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes (CT), la CDM y la CDN.}, {term=Derechos de Primera Generación, definition=Los derechos más elementales y primeros en ser protegidos (ej. entre 1787 y 1917), que se refieren a lo que el individuo es, considerándolo un ser aislado, y que generan una obligación de respeto y abstención por parte del Estado.}, {term=Estado Gendarme (Liberal-Burgués o Mínimo), definition=Concepto de Estado asociado al constitucionalismo clásico, que actúa como un simple guardián para que cada individuo pueda gozar de sus derechos, con un papel pasivo y abstencionista de las autoridades.}, {term=Derecho al Reconocimiento de la Personalidad Jurídica (PSJCR art. 3), definition=Derecho que abarca la prohibición de desaparición forzada de personas, al implicar el no reconocimiento del Estado de que la víctima está bajo su control, y el reconocimiento de la existencia e identidad de las personas.}, {term=Derecho a la Vida (PSJCR art. 4), definition=Derecho que debe ser respetado y protegido "a partir del momento de la concepción", y que genera la obligación positiva del Estado de tomar medidas apropiadas para protegerlo y prevenir ejecuciones arbitrarias.}, {term=Pena de Muerte (según PSJCR art. 4), definition=Sujeta a una "congelación", donde en países que no la han abolido solo podrá imponerse por delitos graves con sentencia firme y ley previa, no se extenderá su aplicación, y en Estados que la abolieron, no se restablecerá, ni se aplicará a menores de 18 o mayores de 70 años, o mujeres embarazadas.}, {term=Desaparición Forzada de Personas (CIDFP art. 2), definition=La privación de la libertad a una o más personas, cualquiera que fuere su forma, cometida por agentes del Estado o por grupos que actúen con su autorización, seguida de la falta de información o negativa a reconocer dicha privación, impidiendo el ejercicio de recursos legales y garantías procesales.}, {term=Crimen de Lesa Humanidad, definition=Calificación dada a la desaparición forzada en el preámbulo de la CIDFP, implicando la posibilidad de aplicación extraterritorial de la ley para delitos contra el derecho de gentes.}, {term=Principio de Irretroactividad de la Ley Penal más Benigna, definition=Principio que establece que si, con posterioridad a la comisión del delito, la ley dispone la imposición de una pena más leve, el delincuente se beneficiará de ello.}, {term=Derecho a la Integridad Personal (PSJCR art. 5), definition=Protege los aspectos físico, psíquico y moral de la persona. Incluye la prohibición de tortura y tratos crueles, la separación de procesados de condenados y menores de adultos en cárceles, y la finalidad de reforma y readaptación social de las penas privativas de libertad.}, {term=Tortura (según Corte IDH), definition=Actos "preparados y realizados deliberadamente contra la víctima para suprimir su resistencia psíquica y forzarla a auto-inculparse o a confesar determinadas conductas delictivas o para someterla a modalidades de castigos adicionales a la privación de la libertad en sí misma", que deben ser intencionales y causar severos sufrimientos.}, {term=Derecho a la Libertad Personal (PSJCR art. 7), definition=Protege los aspectos físico, psíquico y moral, estableciendo que nadie puede ser privado de libertad salvo por causas y condiciones fijadas por ley, derecho a ser informado de detención y cargos, ser llevado sin demora ante un juez, y abolición de prisión por deudas salvo alimentarias.}, {term=Libertad (según Corte IDH en PSJCR), definition=Concebida de manera amplia, abarcando no solo el aspecto ambulatorio, sino también el proyecto de vida que cada persona quiera elegir, su autodeterminación, autonomía y poder de decisión sobre sí mismo, sin interferencias del Estado.}, {term=Seguridad (derecho conexo a libertad), definition=El derecho a que la persona no sea perturbada en su libertad, en su vida y en sus decisiones, actuando como garantía para el ejercicio de la libertad.}, {term=Principio de Legalidad (PSJCR art. 9), definition=Establece que nadie puede ser condenado por acciones u omisiones que no fueran delictivas al momento de cometerse, ni imponerse pena más grave que la aplicable entonces, beneficiándose el delincuente si una ley posterior establece una pena más leve.}, {term=Derecho a la Intimidad y a la Privacidad (PSJCR art. 11), definition=Establece que nadie puede ser objeto de injerencias arbitrarias o abusivas en su vida privada, en la de su familia, en su domicilio o en su correspondencia, ni de ataques a su honra o reputación.}, {term=Inviolabilidad del Domicilio y Papeles Privados (CN art. 18), definition=Principio constitucional que establece que el domicilio, la correspondencia epistolar y los papeles privados son inviolables, y que una ley determinará en qué casos y con qué justificativos podrá procederse a su allanamiento y ocupación.}, {term=Libertad de Conciencia y de Religión (PSJCR art. 12), definition=Derecho a la libertad de conciencia y de religión, que implica la libertad de conservar o cambiar de creencias, y de profesar y divulgar la religión individual o colectivamente, en público o en privado, sujeta a limitaciones necesarias para proteger la seguridad, orden, salud o moral públicos o derechos de terceros.}, {term=Libertad de Pensamiento y de Expresión (PSJCR art. 13), definition=Derecho que comprende la libertad de buscar, recibir y difundir informaciones e ideas de toda índole, sin censura previa y sin restricción por vías o medios indirectos, estando solo sujeta a responsabilidades ulteriores fijadas por ley para proteger el respeto a los derechos o la reputación de otros, la seguridad nacional, el orden público o la salud/moral.}, {term=Medios de Comunicación (función social según Corte IDH), definition=Cumplen una función social, y no es admisible que constituyan monopolios públicos o privados para moldear la opinión pública según un solo punto de vista.}, {term=Derecho de Réplica, Rectificación o Respuesta (PSJCR art. 14), definition=Derecho de toda persona afectada por informaciones inexactas o agraviantes emitidas por medios de difusión, a efectuar, por el mismo órgano, su rectificación o respuesta "en las condiciones que establezca la ley".}, {term=Libertad de Asociación (PSJCR art. 16), definition=Consagra la libertad de asociación.}, {term=Derecho de Propiedad (PSJCR art. 21), definition=Establece el derecho al uso y goce de los bienes, subordinando dicho uso y goce al interés social. La privación de bienes solo es posible mediante indemnización justa, por razones de utilidad pública o interés social, y según formas establecidas por ley.}, {term=Derecho de Propiedad (CN art. 17), definition=Consagra la propiedad como inviolable, de la cual nadie puede ser privado sino en virtud de sentencia fundada en ley. La expropiación por causa de utilidad pública debe ser calificada por ley y previamente indemnizada.}, {term=Interés Social (límite a la propiedad en Argentina), definition=Concepto que, como límite al uso y goce de la propiedad, formaba parte del derecho constitucional argentino desde décadas antes de la ratificación del PSJCR, convalidando restricciones a la propiedad en función del bien común.}, {term=Derecho a la Igualdad y a la No Discriminación (Art. 55 ONU, PSJCR art. 1 y 24), definition=Norma imperativa, integrante del ius cogens internacional, que impone a los Estados la obligación de promover el respeto universal a los derechos humanos sin distinción alguna, y que todos son iguales ante la ley con derecho a igual protección.}, {term=Distinciones versus Discriminaciones (según Corte IDH), definition=No todo trato diferente es discriminatorio. Las distinciones son compatibles con el PSJCR cuando son razonables, proporcionales y objetivas, mientras que las discriminaciones son diferencias arbitrarias que lesionan los derechos humanos.}, {term=Igualdad Real de Oportunidades (Argentina, post-1994), definition=Evolución del derecho a la igualdad, donde el Estado debe adoptar medidas positivas para generar igualdad allí donde no la hay, superando la simple obligación de respeto y abstención. Consagrada en los Arts. 37, 43 y 75 inc. 23 de la CN.}, {term=Derechos Políticos, definition=Medios para procurar la limitación del poder estatal y asegurar gobiernos democráticos que garanticen libertad, seguridad e igualdad, como el derecho a votar y a ser votado, y derechos conexos como la asociación política, expresión o petición política.}, {term=Democracia Participativa, definition=Forma de democracia donde al pueblo, como titular de la soberanía, se le reconoce el derecho a la participación directa en los asuntos públicos, más allá de la mera democracia representativa.}, {term=Derecho al Sufragio, definition=Principio básico del sistema representativo y republicano, y una de las principales formas de participación política, definido como la manifestación de la voluntad individual para concurrir a la formación de una voluntad colectiva (ej. elegir gobernantes o decidir sobre asuntos públicos).}, {term=Derechos No Enumerados (CN art. 33), definition=Derechos que, aunque no figuren expresamente en el texto constitucional, se infieren de la soberanía del pueblo y de la forma republicana de gobierno.}, {term=Partidos Políticos (CN art. 38), definition=Pactados como "instituciones fundamentales del sistema democrático" en la Constitución argentina, garantizándose su creación y ejercicio libre de actividades, organización y funcionamiento democráticos, representación de minorías, competencia para postular candidatos, acceso a información pública y difusión de ideas.}, {term=Derecho de Petición (CN art. 14), definition=Abarca cualquier pedido que un sujeto pueda formular a cualquiera de los poderes del Estado, no solo las peticiones de índole política de los ciudadanos al gobierno (ej. solicitar un permiso de conducir, pedir un indulto).}, {term=Derecho de Reunión (PSJCR art. 15), definition=Consagra la libertad de reunión "pacífica y sin armas", sujeta únicamente a restricciones previstas por ley que sean necesarias en una sociedad democrática y por razones de seguridad nacional, seguridad u orden públicos, salud o moral públicas o derechos/libertades de los demás.}, {term=Libertad de Conciencia (según CSJN), definition=Consiste en no ser obligado a un acto prohibido por la propia conciencia, ya sea por creencias religiosas o convicciones morales, otorgando al individuo un ámbito de libertad para adoptar decisiones fundamentales sobre sí mismo sin interferencia, siempre que no violen derechos de terceros.}, {term=Derecho de Acceso a la Información Pública, definition=Derecho que comprende la libertad de buscar, recibir y difundir informaciones y opiniones, consagrado en varios instrumentos internacionales (DUDH, PSJCR, PIDCP, CDN) y reforzado en la Constitución argentina (Arts. 33, 38, 41, 42, 43).}, {term=Principio de Máxima Divulgación (Corte IDH), definition=Establece la presunción de que toda información bajo el control del Estado es accesible, sujeta a un sistema restringido de excepciones, y fomenta la transparencia y el control democrático de la gestión pública.}, {term=Derecho a Participar de Sesiones y Audiencias Públicas, definition=Derecho que se manifiesta en la publicidad de las sesiones de designación de jueces (CN Art. 99 inc. 4) y la celebración de audiencias públicas (Acordada 30/2007 CSJN), promoviendo el acceso del pueblo a la cosa pública.}, {term=Amicus Curiae, definition=Figura que permite a personas u organizaciones ajenas al proceso comparecer voluntariamente para aportar información, experiencia u opinión como contribución a la solución del caso.}, {term=Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales (DESC), definition=También conocidos como derechos de segunda generación, se dirigen a lo que el individuo hace en el marco de la sociedad, exigiendo prestaciones y conductas positivas del Estado para mitigar desigualdades y garantizar un nivel de vida adecuado.}, {term=Obligaciones Estatales bajo PIDESC (Art. 2.1), definition=Compromiso de los Estados Parte a adoptar medidas (nacionales e internacionales, económicas y técnicas, incluyendo legislativas) hasta el máximo de los recursos disponibles, para lograr progresivamente la plena efectividad de los derechos reconocidos en el Pacto.}, {term=Principio de Progresividad (en DESC), definition=Implica que el pleno goce de los DESC no se logrará en breve, admitiendo flexibilidad frente a dificultades de cada país, pero imponiendo obligaciones de comportamiento y resultado con efecto inmediato (ej. no discriminación) y evitando cualquier acción u omisión que implique retroceder en el nivel de goce.}, {term=Prohibición de Regresividad (en DESC), definition=Principio según el cual el Estado debe evitar cualquier acción u omisión que implique retrotraer el nivel de goce o protección de los DESC que ya disfrutan los individuos, y justificar cuidadosa y plenamente cualquier medida regresiva.}, {term=Constitución Mexicana de Querétaro de 1917, definition=La primera Constitución en el mundo en incluir normas sobre los DESC, como la educación democrática, justa retribución, jornada máxima de ocho horas y protección de la embarazada.}, {term=Constitución Alemana de Weimar de 1919, definition=Constitución que surgió de una transacción entre sindicatos y empresarios, incluyendo normas sobre prohibición de la usura, propiedad como servicio al bien general, derecho a vivienda sana y socialización de empresas económicas.}, {term=Art. 14 bis CN (Argentina, 1957), definition=Artículo que consagra los derechos individuales del trabajador, los derechos colectivos del trabajo (gremios, convenios colectivos, huelga) y los beneficios de la seguridad social, con carácter tuitivo y fundamentado en la desigualdad entre trabajador y empleador.}, {term=Ejecutabilidad de los DESC, definition=El problema de la carencia de mecanismos efectivos para lograr la efectividad de los DESC, lo que plantea qué facultades y mecanismos pueden usar los jueces para compeler a las ramas políticas a cumplir con estas obligaciones.}, {term=Inconstitucionalidad por Omisión (en DESC), definition=Concepto relacionado con la ejecutabilidad de los DESC, que se refiere a la inacción estatal en el cumplimiento de obligaciones en esta materia, y cómo los jueces pueden exigir la adopción de medidas necesarias.}, {term=Mandamientos de Ejecución (en DESC), definition=Normas que permiten a los jueces ordenar a los funcionarios públicos la ejecución de determinadas medidas de las cuales depende el goce de un derecho económico o social (ej. en Constituciones de Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz).}, {term=Derechos de Incidencia Colectiva (o de Tercera Generación), definition=Derechos que tienen en la mira a un conjunto de seres humanos y no al individuo aislado, consagrándose para pueblos o comunidades, y cuyo ejercicio por una persona u organización beneficia a todo el colectivo.}, {term=Derecho a un Medio Ambiente Sano, definition=Derecho humano fundamental y presupuesto para el disfrute de otros derechos, dada la estrecha vinculación del ambiente con el nivel de vida, y que implica un compromiso intergeneracional.}, {term=Declaración de Estocolmo de 1972, definition=Primer antecedente relevante en la materia ambiental, emanado de la Conferencia de la ONU sobre el Medio Humano, que sentó principios fundamentales como el ser humano artífice de su entorno y la protección del ambiente para el bienestar.}, {term=Carta Mundial de la Naturaleza de 1982, definition=Documento que agregó principios básicos de respeto a la naturaleza, no perturbar sus procesos esenciales, no amenazar la viabilidad genética, y salvaguardar los hábitats de las especies.}, {term=Declaración de Río de Janeiro de 1992, definition=Adoptada en la Conferencia de la ONU sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo, tuvo como eje central el concepto de desarrollo sustentable y contiene 28 principios ambientales que concilian necesidades actuales con preservación para futuras generaciones.}, {term=Desarrollo Humano Sustentable, definition=Proceso mediante el cual se amplían las oportunidades del ser humano (vida prolongada y saludable, acceso a recursos decentes), conciliando la necesidad de aprovechar recursos naturales actuales con la preservación del ambiente para las generaciones futuras.}, {term=Compromiso Intergeneracional, definition=Principio que establece que el consumo actual no puede financiarse incurriendo en deudas económicas que otros reembolsarán en el futuro, y los recursos naturales deben usarse sin sobreexplotar la capacidad de producción de la tierra.}, {term=Art. 41 CN (Medio Ambiente, Argentina), definition=Establece el derecho a un ambiente sano y equilibrado, apto para el desarrollo humano y productivo sin comprometer futuras generaciones, y el deber de preservar. También consagra la obligación de recomponer el daño ambiental prioritariamente y el reparto de competencias entre Nación y provincias.}, {term=Obligación de Recomponer (Daño Ambiental), definition=Principio con jerarquía constitucional (CN Art. 41), que establece que el daño ambiental generará prioritariamente la obligación de volver las cosas al estado anterior a la contaminación, antes que la indemnización de daños.}, {term=Derecho a la Paz, definition=Derecho consagrado en instrumentos internacionales como el Art. 26.2 de la DUDH, enfocado en el pleno desarrollo de la personalidad humana, el respeto a los derechos humanos y la promoción de la comprensión, tolerancia y amistad entre pueblos.}, {term=Derecho a la Autodeterminación de los Pueblos, definition=Derecho que nace del DIP (Carta de la ONU Art. 1), desarrollado por la res. 2625 (XXV) de la AG de la ONU, que alude al derecho de la población de los Estados de decidir libremente su estilo de vida y políticas sin injerencias externas.}, {term=Derecho a la Democracia, definition=Considerado actualmente un derecho de incidencia colectiva, confirmado por la Carta Democrática Interamericana de 2001, que lo vincula inescindiblemente con el Estado de Derecho y los derechos humanos, como base de un régimen de libertad y justicia social.}, {term=Carta Democrática Interamericana (2001), definition=Documento adoptado por la AG de la OEA que confirmó el carácter de la democracia como derecho humano, estableciendo como elementos esenciales el respeto a los DDHH, el acceso y ejercicio del poder sujeto al Estado de derecho, elecciones periódicas, régimen plural de partidos y separación de poderes.}, {term=Derechos de los Consumidores y Usuarios (CN art. 42), definition=Derechos consagrados en Argentina para quienes ejercen el rol de consumidores de bienes y servicios privados o usuarios de servicios públicos, incluyendo protección de salud y seguridad, intereses económicos, información veraz, libertad de elección, trato equitativo y digno, y derecho de asociación.}, {term=Relación de Consumo, definition=Según el Código Civil y Comercial argentino, las normas que la regulan deben aplicarse e interpretarse conforme al principio de protección del consumidor y el de acceso al consumo sustentable, prevaleciendo la interpretación más favorable al consumidor en caso de duda.}, {term=Derechos de las Comunidades Indígenas (o Pueblos Originarios), definition=Derechos que atañen a colectividades y son titularizados por toda una comunidad, permitiendo a sus miembros accionar en nombre del resto. En Argentina (CN Art. 75 inc. 17) se reconoce su preexistencia étnica y cultural, identidad, educación bilingüe, personería jurídica, posesión y propiedad comunitaria de tierras, y participación en la gestión de recursos naturales.}, {term=Interés Superior del Niño (CDN art. 3), definition=Principio rector en materia de derechos del niño, que establece que en todas las medidas que tomen las instituciones públicas o privadas, tribunales, autoridades administrativas o legislativas, una consideración primordial será el interés superior del niño, actuando como pauta genérica de interpretación y aplicación.}, {term=Derechos de las Mujeres, definition=Derechos protegidos de forma diferenciada a los derechos del hombre en diversos instrumentos internacionales (ej. CDM) y en Argentina, a través de leyes como la Ley 26.485 de Protección Integral para Prevenir, Sancionar y Erradicar la Violencia y la Ley 27.412 de Paridad de Género.}, {term=Estereotipo de Género (según Corte IDH en Campo Algodonero), definition=Una preconcepción de atributos o características poseídas o papeles que son o deberían ser ejecutados por hombres y mujeres respectivamente, que puede convertirse en causa y consecuencia de la violencia de género.}, {term=Violencia contra la Mujer (Corte IDH), definition=Una forma de discriminación basada en el sexo, dirigida contra la mujer o que la afecta desproporcionadamente, impidiendo gravemente el goce de derechos y libertades en pie de igualdad con el hombre, y manifestación de relaciones de poder históricamente desiguales.}, {term=Ley Micaela (Ley 27.499), definition=Ley argentina de 2019 que establece la capacitación obligatoria en temática de género y violencia contra las mujeres para todas las personas que se desempeñen en la función pública en todos los niveles y jerarquías de los poderes Ejecutivo, Legislativo y Judicial de la Nación.}, {term=Derechos de los Ancianos, definition=Personas mayores que, por la mengua física y mental natural del tiempo, no pueden trabajar y deben ser objeto de protección especial por el Estado, principalmente a través de un sistema de seguridad social integral (salud, manutención, asistencia).}, {term=Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad, definition=Derechos reconocidos en la CN (Art. 75 inc. 23) y elevados a rango constitucional por la Convención sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad en 2014, buscando la supresión de barreras físicas y la inserción laboral (Ley 22.431).}, {term=Grupos Vulnerables, definition=Ciertos grupos humanos (mujeres, niños, ancianos y personas discapacitadas) considerados merecedores de un "plus" de protección por la situación de desventaja en que tradicionalmente se encontraron, y que tienen derechos con doble carácter (individual y colectivo).}, {term=Medidas de Acción Positiva (o Discriminaciones Inversas), definition=Medidas especiales de carácter temporal adoptadas por el Estado, encaminadas a acelerar la igualdad de facto en distintos ámbitos de la sociedad, que cesarán al alcanzar los objetivos de igualdad de oportunidades y de trato.}, {term=Tutela Judicial Efectiva (concepto según Corte IDH), definition=Concepto construido a partir de varias reglas: recursos judiciales efectivos, remoción de obstáculos para acceder a la justicia, dirección del proceso para evitar dilaciones, costos razonables, derechos de la víctima, independencia e imparcialidad del tribunal, garantía de ejecución de sentencias, deber de reparación adecuada y efectividad de decisiones de la Corte IDH.}, {term=Principio de Legalidad o de Ley Anterior (PSJCR art. 9), definition=Establece tres reglas: ley previa (la norma punitiva debe existir y ser conocida antes del hecho); irretroactividad de la ley más gravosa (se aplica la pena más leve si la ley cambia); y retroactividad de la ley más benigna (se aplica la pena menor si una ley posterior la establece).}, {term=Irretroactividad de la Ley más Gravosa, definition=Si, al momento de juzgarse una conducta, la ley penal ha sido modificada y la pena es superior a la vigente al momento del hecho, se aplica la ley más leve.}, {term=Retroactividad de la Ley más Benigna, definition=Si, con posterioridad a la comisión del delito, la ley modifica la pena o establece una menor, debe aplicarse la ley más leve al delincuente.}, {term=Ley Previa (CN art. 18 y DIDH), definition=Norma indispensable que debe ser estricta, cierta, escrita y anterior al hecho del proceso, para que "nadie pueda ser penado sin juicio previo fundado en ley anterior al hecho del proceso".}, {term=Principio de Inocencia (PSJCR art. 8.2), definition=Toda persona inculpada de delito tiene derecho a que se presuma su inocencia mientras no se establezca legalmente su culpabilidad y esta presunción solo cesa con una sentencia condenatoria firme.}, {term=In Dubio Pro Reo, definition=Pauta interpretativa que deriva del principio de inocencia, por la cual en caso de duda, si no se pudo destruir la presunción de inocencia del imputado, el juez debe mantener su inocencia y no condenarlo.}, {term=Garantía de Juez Natural (PSJCR art. 8.1 y CN art. 18), definition=Derecho de toda persona a ser oída por un juez o tribunal competente, independiente e imparcial, establecido con anterioridad por la ley, y no ser juzgado por comisiones especiales o sacado de los jueces designados por la ley antes del hecho de la causa.}, {term=Independencia e Imparcialidad del Tribunal, definition=Uno de los pilares básicos de las garantías del debido proceso, que exige que el juez actúe con la mayor objetividad, sin prejuicios, y ofrezca garantías suficientes para eliminar dudas de parcialidad.}, {term=Prohibición de Declarar en Contra de Sí Mismo (PSJCR art. 8.2.g y CN art. 18), definition=Principio que tiende a evitar la autoincriminación y la obtención de confesiones mediante coacción, estableciendo que la confesión del inculpado solo es válida si es hecha sin coacción de ninguna naturaleza.}, {term=Necesidad de Orden Escrita de Autoridad Competente, definition=Requisito que garantiza que la detención de una persona se base en una orden que consigne la autoridad que la dictó y la causa, permitiendo controlar su validez, razonabilidad y la competencia del órgano.}, {term=Derecho a la Defensa en Juicio (PSJCR art. 7 y CN), definition=Garantía genérica que abarca un conjunto de derechos para la adecuada defensa ante la jurisdicción, como ser informado de la acusación, ofrecer pruebas, designar abogado y traductor, y la preparación anticipada de la defensa.}, {term=Derecho a la Doble Instancia en Materia Penal y de Derechos del Niño, definition=Derecho de recurrir los fallos dictados en causas penales ante un tribunal de alzada, jerárquicamente superior al que emitió la sentencia, y que también se reconoce para decisiones que afecten a los niños.}, {term=Publicidad del Proceso, definition=Exigencia de que los procesos administrativos y judiciales sean accesibles a las partes y al público en general (salvo excepciones justificadas), inherente al derecho de defensa en juicio y al sistema republicano de gobierno.}, {term=Derecho a un Plazo Razonable, definition=Derecho consagrado en el PSJCR (Art. 8.1) que implica que toda persona tiene derecho a ser oída con las debidas garantías y dentro de un plazo adecuado por un juez o tribunal, apreciándose en relación con la duración total del procedimiento hasta sentencia definitiva.}, {term=Denegación de Justicia, definition=Situación que ocurre cuando el retardo en la tramitación de un proceso es excesivo, o si no existen recursos judiciales disponibles, breves, expeditos y eficaces contra la violación de derechos.}, {term=Derecho a Obtener un Fallo Debidamente Fundado, definition=Deber del Estado, a través de los jueces, de apoyar sus decisiones con motivos y razones eficaces, garantizando el derecho de los justiciables y la sociedad a conocer las justificaciones de las decisiones judiciales.}, {term=Sentencia Arbitraria e Inconstitucional, definition=Un fallo infundado, con contradicciones, basado en la voluntad del juzgador, que prescinde del derecho vigente o no contempla pruebas/argumentos decisivos, violando el debido proceso y el derecho a un fallo fundado.}, {term=Acceso a la Justicia y Costos de Litigar, definition=Aunque el acceso a la justicia no es absoluto, las reglamentaciones no pueden negar este derecho; los montos de la tasa de justicia y las costas no deben obstruir el acceso ni generar temor a pagar sumas excesivas.}, {term=Beneficio de Litigar Sin Gastos (BLSG), definition=Mecanismo que permite a personas de escasos recursos acceder a la justicia sin pagar la tasa de justicia ni las costas judiciales, aunque su concesión es a veces limitada en la práctica.}, {term=Tasa de Justicia (según Bidart Campos), definition=Considerada inconstitucional "siempre y en todos los casos", ya que el Estado no puede cobrar por el ejercicio de una función de poder, especialmente cuando debe afianzar la justicia.}, {term=Derecho a la Ejecución del Fallo, definition=El deber del Estado de arbitrar todos los medios para garantizar a los justiciables el cumplimiento de las sentencias judiciales, incluyendo medidas cautelares, sentencias anticipadas, astreintes y sentencias exhortativas.}, {term=Acción de Amparo Individual (PSJCR art. 25 y CN art. 43), definition=Un recurso sencillo y rápido o cualquier otro recurso efectivo ante jueces o tribunales competentes, que ampara a toda persona contra actos que violen sus derechos fundamentales reconocidos por la Constitución, la ley o la Convención, incluso si son cometidos por funcionarios.}, {term=Amparo (Argentina), definition=Un proceso rápido a través del cual se solicita a un juez que ampare al peticionante de la violación actual o inminente de un derecho. Nació en la jurisprudencia ("Siri", 1957) para operativizar derechos constitucionales sin vía procesal adecuada.}, {term=Inconstitucionalidad por Omisión (en Amparo), definition=Concepto según el cual la inacción legislativa en reglamentar una norma superior (como un tratado con jerarquía constitucional) para hacerla operativa puede ser subsanada por los jueces, quienes tienen la facultad de darle acogida al amparo y suplir esa mora.}, {term=Amparo Colectivo (CN art. 43, párr. 2), definition=Acción que puede interponerse contra cualquier forma de discriminación y en lo relativo a los derechos que protegen al ambiente, la competencia, al usuario y al consumidor, y derechos de incidencia colectiva en general, por el afectado, el Defensor del Pueblo o asociaciones registradas.}, {term=Hábeas Data (CN art. 43, párr. 3 y Ley 25.326), definition=Acción por la cual una persona física o jurídica puede solicitar a una base de datos, pública o privada, acceso, rectificación, supresión o confidencialidad de los datos personales que le refieren.}, {term=Hábeas Data Informativo, definition=Tipo de hábeas data para tomar conocimiento de los datos personales almacenados en archivos, registros o bancos de datos públicos o privados, y de la finalidad de su uso.}, {term=Hábeas Data Correctivo, definition=Tipo de hábeas data para exigir la rectificación, supresión o actualización de información personal cuando se presuma su falsedad, inexactitud o desactualización.}, {term=Hábeas Data de Confidencialidad, definition=Tipo de hábeas data que se interpone respecto de datos sensibles (origen racial, opiniones políticas, convicciones religiosas, afiliación sindical, salud, vida sexual) para solicitar su confidencialidad cuando medien "razones de interés general autorizadas por ley".}, {term=Hábeas Corpus (PSJCR art. 7 y Ley 23.098), definition=Derecho de toda persona privada de libertad a recurrir ante un juez o tribunal competente para que decida, sin demora, sobre la legalidad de su arresto o detención y, si son ilegales, ordene su libertad. (También comprende las variantes preventivo, clásico y correctivo).}, {term=Hábeas Corpus Preventivo, definition=Se interpone cuando existe una amenaza actual de la libertad ambulatoria, es decir, la persona no está aún detenida, pero tiene razones fundadas para entender que puede serlo.}, {term=Hábeas Corpus Clásico, definition=Se utiliza cuando ya existe una privación de la libertad que se considera ilegítima.}, {term=Hábeas Corpus Correctivo, definition=Se aplica cuando existe una "agravación ilegítima de la forma y condiciones en que se cumple la privación de la libertad", buscando el mejoramiento de las condiciones de detención en lugar de la liberación.}, {term=Acciones de Clase (Argentina), definition=Acciones no patrimoniales, creadas por la jurisprudencia de la CSJN (caso "Halabi", 2009), donde se ejercen "derechos de incidencia colectiva referidos a intereses individuales homogéneos", con efecto erga omnes.}, {term=Estados de Excepción (o de Emergencia, de Alarma, de Prevención, Estado de Sitio), definition=Contingencias extraordinarias que pueden poner en peligro la existencia, continuidad, soberanía o vigencia de instituciones democráticas de un Estado, por causas internas o internacionales, y que justifican la restricción o suspensión de ciertos derechos.}, {term=Legalidad Excepcional, definition=Concepto que indica que, durante los estados de excepción, algunos límites legales de la actuación del poder público pueden ser distintos a los normales, pero no son inexistentes, y el gobierno no está investido de poderes absolutos.}, {term=Derechos No Suspendibles (PIDCP art. 4.2 y PSJCR art. 27.2), definition=Lista taxativa de derechos que no pueden suspenderse en emergencias, incluyendo el derecho al reconocimiento de la personalidad jurídica, a la vida, integridad personal, prohibición de tortura y esclavitud, principio de legalidad, libertad de conciencia/religión/pensamiento, protección a la familia, nombre, derechos del niño, nacionalidad, derechos políticos y prohibición de prisión por deudas.}, {term=Estado de Sitio (Argentina, CN art. 23), definition=Declaración que procede en caso de conmoción interior o ataque exterior que pongan en peligro la Constitución o las autoridades creadas por ella, y que suspende allí las garantías constitucionales, limitada al territorio afectado y con control para evitar abusos.}, {term=Derecho de Opción (Estado de Sitio), definition=Facultad del detenido en estado de sitio de preferir salir del territorio argentino en lugar de ser arrestado, lo cual debe ser respetado, ya que el arresto tiene un carácter preventivo y no punitivo.}, {term=Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH), definition=Organismo creado en 1959 y en funciones desde 1960, cuyo objeto es recibir denuncias, estimular la conciencia en DDHH, y formular recomendaciones, con facultades de protección que la han llevado a realizar informes sobre situaciones globales y tramitar denuncias individuales.}, {term=Denuncias Individuales (ante la CIDH), definition=Mecanismo más importante de protección de los derechos humanos en América, donde personas, grupos o ONG pueden presentar peticiones sobre presuntas violaciones de derechos humanos, generando procedimientos que pueden culminar en un informe o la remisión del caso a la Corte IDH.}, {term=Informes Generales (de la CIDH), definition=Documentos que analiza la situación de los derechos humanos en un país, elaborando estándares de cumplimiento de las obligaciones internacionales y concluyendo con recomendaciones o proposiciones para el Estado involucrado.}, {term=Comunicaciones Interestatales (ante la CIDH), definition=Mecanismo por el cual los Estados pueden reconocer la competencia de la Comisión para recibir y examinar comunicaciones donde se alegue que otro Estado ha violado "derechos humanos establecidos en esta Convención" (PSJCR).}, {term=Observaciones o Visitas In Loco (de la CIDH), definition=Mecanismo que consiste en recabar información directamente en el territorio de un Estado, en relación con denuncias de violaciones reiteradas o sistemáticas a los derechos humanos.}, {term=Competencia Ratione Personae (de la CIDH), definition=Análisis que determina si quien peticiona (legitimación activa, cualquier persona, grupo o ONG) y el Estado denunciado (legitimación pasiva, Estado Parte en la Convención o miembro de la OEA) están habilitados para actuar en una denuncia individual ante la Comisión.}, {term=Competencia Ratione Materiae (de la CIDH), definition=Criterio por el cual la Comisión considera peticiones sobre presuntas violaciones de los derechos humanos consagrados en la Convención Americana y otros instrumentos internacionales como la DADDH, Protocolo de San Salvador y convenciones contra la tortura, desaparición forzada y violencia contra la mujer.}, {term=Competencia Ratione Temporis (de la CIDH), definition=Criterio temporal que limita la admisión de la competencia de la Comisión a hechos producidos con posterioridad a la ratificación del tratado objeto de la denuncia, aunque puede entender en "violaciones continuadas" si sus efectos subsisten.}, {term=Competencia Ratione Loci (de la CIDH), definition=Criterio que establece que el PSJCR obliga a los Estados a respetar y garantizar los derechos y libertades reconocidos a "toda persona que esté sujeta a su jurisdicción", abarcando a quienes se encuentran en su territorio y a sus nacionales en el extranjero bajo jurisdicción nacional.}, {term=Agotamiento de la Jurisdicción Interna (requisito CIDH), definition=Condición principal para la admisibilidad de una petición ante la Comisión, que exige haber interpuesto y agotado todos los recursos judiciales internos del Estado, para permitir a este reparar la violación de derechos antes de una instancia internacional.}, {term=Excepciones al Requisito de Agotamiento de la Jurisdicción Interna, definition=Circunstancias que permiten promover una denuncia ante la CIDH sin agotar los recursos internos, como la inexistencia o insuficiencia de recursos, la imposibilidad de acceder a ellos, o el retardo injustificado en su trámite.}, {term=Plazo para Presentar una Denuncia (ante la CIDH), definition=Seis meses a partir de la fecha en que la persona presuntamente lesionada fue notificada de la decisión definitiva que agota los recursos internos, o un plazo razonable (a criterio de la Comisión) si aplican las excepciones.}, {term=Solución Amistosa (ante la CIDH), definition=Medio alternativo para resolver una petición individual que permite a las partes interesadas llegar a un acuerdo, evitando un pronunciamiento del órgano interamericano y permitiendo al Estado solucionar el conflicto mediante concesiones, comprometiéndose a cumplir lo acordado.}, {term=Informe Preliminar (de la CIDH, art. 50 PSJCR), definition=Primer informe emitido por la Comisión cuando se establece una violación, que incluye proposiciones y recomendaciones dirigidas al Estado con un plazo para cumplirlas, y sobre el cual el peticionario puede opinar acerca de someter el caso a la Corte.}, {term=Informe Definitivo (de la CIDH, art. 51 PSJCR), definition=Segundo informe emitido por la Comisión si el asunto no se soluciona tras el informe preliminar o no se remite a la Corte. Expresa la opinión, conclusiones y recomendaciones de la Comisión, fijando un plazo para que el Estado remedie la situación.}, {term=Fuerza Vinculante de las Recomendaciones de la CIDH, definition=Aunque inicialmente se consideró que carecían de obligatoriedad, la Corte IDH, atendiendo al principio de buena fe, sostuvo que los Estados tienen la obligación de "realizar sus mejores esfuerzos para aplicar las recomendaciones" de la Comisión.}, {term=Fórmula de la Cuarta Instancia, definition=Principio según el cual la actuación de la Comisión (o cualquier órgano internacional) no implica una instancia de revisión de las decisiones jurisdiccionales firmes de los tribunales nacionales, ya que los órganos internacionales no pueden anularlas, sino juzgar si comprometieron la responsabilidad del Estado por violar normas internacionales.}, {term=Mecanismos Cautelares (de la CIDH), definition=Medidas extraordinarias de protección, de base extra-convencional (Reglamento Art. 25), requeridas por la urgencia y gravedad de una situación para evitar daños irreparables a las personas, que la Comisión puede disponer de oficio o a petición de parte.}, {term=Medidas Provisionales (de la Corte IDH), definition=Medidas urgentes previstas en el PSJCR (Art. 63.2) y decretadas por la Corte IDH, para asegurar la eficacia de la función judicial y proteger derechos fundamentales en grave riesgo, evitando daños irreparables a las personas o a personas colectivas.}, {term=Competencia de la Corte IDH ("Compétence de la compétence" o "Kompetenz-Kompetenz"), definition=Poder inherente a la Corte IDH para pronunciarse sobre su propia competencia, que deriva del derecho internacional y le permite verificar si un caso cumple los requisitos ratione personae, temporis y materiae para su tramitación.}, {term=Jueces Ad Hoc (en la Corte IDH), definition=Magistrados designados por un Estado parte para integrar la Corte cuando el juez nacional de dicho Estado no forma parte de la integración original de la misma, o cuando ninguno de los jueces de la Corte es de la nacionalidad de los Estados parte en el caso.}, {term=Excepciones Preliminares (ante la Corte IDH), definition=Defensas que la parte demandada (el Estado) presenta ante la Corte, relativas a la ausencia de presupuestos procesales imprescindibles para que el proceso sea regular o válido, como la incompetencia, el incumplimiento de requisitos de admisibilidad o la extemporaneidad de la demanda.}, {term=Amicus Curiae (ante la Corte IDH), definition=Figura que permite a personas u organizaciones ajenas al proceso comparecer voluntariamente para aportar información y exponer su experiencia u opinión, como contribución para la solución del caso, incorporada formalmente en la reforma al Reglamento de 2009.}, {term=Allanamiento (en proceso ante la Corte IDH), definition=Modo de terminación anticipada del proceso que implica la aceptación por parte del Estado de las pretensiones de las presuntas víctimas o de la Comisión, aunque no necesariamente de los hechos invocados. La Corte resuelve sobre la procedencia, efectos jurídicos y reparaciones.}, {term=Vaguedad de la Normativa Internacional (ejecución sentencias Corte IDH), definition=Defecto en el PSJCR que solo establece el compromiso de los Estados de cumplir las decisiones de la Corte (Art. 68.1) y remite a procedimientos internos para sentencias indemnizatorias (Art. 68.2), sin especificar cómo ejecutar sentencias no indemnizatorias.}, {term=Sentencias Indemnizatorias (de la Corte IDH), definition=Aquellas sentencias de la Corte IDH (o una parte de ellas) que condenan al Estado a abonar una "indemnización compensatoria", es decir, a pagar sumas de dinero, cuya ejecución se remite a los procedimientos internos del Estado condenado.}, {term=Sentencias No Indemnizatorias (de la Corte IDH), definition=Aquellas sentencias de la Corte IDH que no ordenan el pago de una suma pecuniaria, sino la realización de otra medida que el Estado deba adoptar (ej. liberación, mejora de condiciones de detención, localización de víctimas de desaparición), y cuya ejecución depende de las acciones y leyes internas del Estado.}, {term=Cláusula Federal (PSJCR art. 28.1), definition=Disposición del PSJCR que establece que en Estados federales, el gobierno nacional es responsable internacionalmente por el cumplimiento del tratado por parte de todas sus entidades componentes, obligándose a adoptar medidas para que las autoridades locales cumplan con sus normas.}, {term=Laudo Arbitral (como mecanismo de ejecución en DIDH), definition=Determinación del monto de indemnizaciones por un tribunal arbitral, acordada en una solución amistosa ante la Comisión IDH, que puede servir como precedente para ejecutar sentencias de la Corte IDH, asignando al Estado nacional la responsabilidad de pago con posibilidad de repetición a la provincia responsable.}, {term=Etapa del Desuso (de instrumentos internacionales de DDHH en Argentina), definition=Período hasta 1992 en la jurisprudencia de la CSJN, caracterizado por la negativa a aplicar directamente y reconocer la jerarquía y operatividad de los instrumentos internacionales de derechos humanos.}, {term=Etapa del Uso con Jerarquía Supralegal, pero Infraconstitucional (en Argentina), definition=Período de 1992 a 1994, inaugurado por el fallo "Ekmekdjian c. Sofovich", donde la CSJN consideró que los tratados tenían jerarquía normativa superior a las leyes, y eran directamente operativos, pero sin alcanzar el rango constitucional.}, {term=Etapa del Uso con Jerarquía Constitucional (en Argentina), definition=Período de 1994 a 2005 en la jurisprudencia argentina, donde la CSJN aplicó los instrumentos internacionales de derechos humanos con jerarquía constitucional, considerando que la jurisprudencia de la Corte IDH integra sus "condiciones de vigencia".}, {term=Etapa del Abuso (de instrumentos internacionales de DDHH en Argentina), definition=Período de 2005 a 2017 en la CSJN, caracterizado por el uso y la interpretación muy extensiva de los instrumentos internacionales de derechos humanos, y la jurisprudencia y doctrina interamericana, a veces dejando de lado normas constitucionales.}, {term=Regreso al "Uso" de la Jurisprudencia Interamericana (en Argentina), definition=Período desde 2017 en adelante en la CSJN, donde se produjo un cambio en la jurisprudencia respecto al valor de las sentencias de la Corte IDH, rechazando la facultad de esta de "dejar sin efecto" sentencias firmes nacionales y redefiniendo el control de convencionalidad.}, {term=Control de Convencionalidad (según Corte IDH, post-2006), definition=Doctrina gestada a partir de los fallos de la Corte IDH (ej. "Almonacid Arellano c. Chile", 2006), que establece la obligación de todos los jueces y autoridades nacionales de ejercer un control de convencionalidad de oficio y simultáneo, aplicando los tratados internacionales de derechos humanos y la jurisprudencia de la Corte IDH como parámetro de validez de las normas internas.}, {term=Parámetro de Convencionalidad (según Corte IDH), definition=Se amplía al incorporar los criterios expuestos en el ejercicio de la competencia no contenciosa o consultiva de la Corte IDH, obligando a los jueces nacionales a aplicar, con carácter obligatorio, la jurisprudencia interamericana, incluyendo sus opiniones consultivas.}, {term=Margen de Apreciación Nacional, definition=Doctrina, originada en el sistema europeo, que implica una deferencia o respeto de los sistemas internacionales hacia las autoridades nacionales, reservando a estas un cierto margen de discrecionalidad para adaptar las normas y la jurisprudencia internacional a las particularidades de su sistema jurídico.}, {term=Terrorismo de Estado (Argentina, 1976-1983), definition=El accionar represivo del gobierno militar que usurpó el poder, el cual se transformó también en terrorista al utilizar métodos brutales y clandestinos como secuestro, tortura, homicidio y desaparición de personas, violando sistemáticamente los derechos humanos.}, {term=Refoulement (en derecho internacional), definition=Expulsión de extranjeros que se hallan en un país en calidad de refugiados, expatriándolos a sus países de origen donde son perseguidos, violando una norma consuetudinaria codificada en la Convención Relativa al Estatuto para los Refugiados.}, {term=Comisión Nacional por la Desaparición Forzada de Personas (Conadep), definition=Comisión creada por decreto presidencial en Argentina (1983) y presidida por Ernesto Sábato, cuya misión fue recolectar pruebas sobre violaciones masivas de derechos humanos e informar a la opinión pública, culminando en la publicación del libro "Nunca Más".}, {term=Ley de "Punto Final" (Ley 23.492 de 1986), definition=Ley argentina que establecía la extinción de la acción penal contra imputados de ciertos delitos si no eran citados a declaración indagatoria dentro de los sesenta días, con el objetivo de consolidar la paz social y la reconciliación nacional, actuando como un límite temporal a la iniciación de juicios.}, {term=Ley de "Obediencia Debida" (Ley 23.521 de 1987), definition=Ley argentina que establecía la presunción de que aquellos oficiales y suboficiales sin capacidad decisoria que actuaron en la represión "obraron en estado de coerción bajo subordinación a la autoridad superior y en cumplimiento de órdenes", exculpándolos de responsabilidad.}, {term=Indulto, definition=El perdón absoluto de la pena ya impuesta por el juez competente, una prerrogativa tradicional de los soberanos que, en Argentina, es facultad presidencial (CN Art. 99 inc. 11), pero que ha sido objeto de limitaciones por normas internacionales que prohíben el indulto de crímenes de lesa humanidad.}, {term=Declaración de "Ausencia por Desaparición Forzada", definition=Nueva categoría introducida en el régimen legal argentino (Ley 24.411, 1994) para indemnizar a familiares de desaparecidos y regular judicialmente la declaración de ausencia de quienes fueron privados de su libertad y su paradero es desconocido o alojados en lugares clandestinos.}], description=Flashcards de vocabulario en español sobre los conceptos, principios, evolución histórica, fuentes y mecanismos de protección de los derechos humanos, con especial énfasis en el sistema interamericano y su aplicación en Argentina, basados en el "Manual de Derechos Humanos y Garantías" de Pablo Luis Manili.}