Key term/event

Definition (Who, What, When, Where…)

Significance (Why this term matters)

Khitans

Nomadic peoples of Manchuria; militarily superior to Song dynasty China but influenced by chinese culture; forced humiliating treaties on Song China in 11th century

• Founded the Liao dynasty which rivaled the Song dynasty 

• One cause of Song dynasty’s decline 

neo-Confucians

A philosophy that emerged in Song-dynasty China; it revived Confucian thinking while adding in Buddhist and Daoist elements.

• Revival of Confucianism 

• Devoted to recovering and reinterpreting ancient texts

• Make China Great Again

• Confucian ideals lead to morality

• Xenophobia 

Xi Xia

Kingdom of Tangut people, north of Song kingdom, in mid-11th century; collected tribute that drained Song resources and burdened Chinese peasantry

• Also cause of Song’s decline

• Drained their resources, burdened their peasantry and army  

Wang Anshi

Confucian scholar and chief minister of a Song emperor in 1070s; introduced sweeping reforms based on Legalists; advocated greater state intervention in society

• Introduced Legalism 

  • Consequences for actions 

• Hated by Confucian ministers 

Jurchens

Founders of the Jin kingdom that succeeded the Liao in northern China; annexed most of the Yellow River basin and forced Song to flee to south

• Founded the Jin kingdom which force the Song to flee to the South

• Led to creation of Southern Song dynasty 

Southern Song

Rump state of Song dynasty from 1127 to 1279; carved out of the much larger domains ruled by the tang and northern Song; culturally one of the most glorious reigns in Chinese history

• Cultural peak

  • Neo-Confucians returned to power 

• External expansion

  • Silk Roads reopened

  • Sea trade 

• Economic expansion -> Champa Rice

  • Merchant class

    • Differing occupations 

  • Guilts 

  • Taxation

  • Exchange 

• Demography 

  • Urbanization

  • Population growth 

• Technology 

  • Champa Rice

  • Manure and Irrigation 

  • Gunpowder 

  • Iron

  • Printing 

• Confucianism = Reinforcement of gender roles

  • Foot binding

junks

Chinese ships equipped with watertight bulkheads, sternpost rudders, compasses, and bamboo fenders; dominant force in Asian seas east of the Malayan peninsula

• Most advanced ships at their time

• Allowed for Chinese maritime trade to excel 

• Dominated Asian seas

compass

Used for sea navigation during trade

• Also made sea navigation for trading easier and more efficient

flying money

Chinese credit instrument that provided credit vouchers to merchants to be redeemed at the end of the voyage; reduced danger of robbery; early form of currency

• New innovation of Chinese economy 

• Led to first use of paper money in Tang era 

foot binding

The binding of womens feet in the Tang-Song era in order to constrict women to the household, and to meet society’s beauty standards. 

• The act of food binding exemplifies the degree of China’s patriarchal society during the Tang-Song era and extremely unbalanced gender roles 

filial piety

In Confucian thought, one of the virtues to be cultivated, a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors.

• Core value of Tang and Song era societies 

• Taught how people, especially children, should behave in society 

Champa rice

Quick-maturing rice that can allow two harvests in one growing season. Originally introduced into Champa from India, it was later sent to China as a tribute gift by the Champa state (as part of the tributary system.)

• Allowed for agricultural expansion -> caused economic and social growth as well in Tang and Song dynasties 

Grand Canal

Built in 7th century during reign of Yangdi during Sui dynasty; designed to link the original centers of Chinese civilization on the north China plain with the Yangtze river basin to the south; nearly 1200 miles long

• Created link between northern centers of Chinese civilization with southern Yangtze river basin 

• Made it easier to transport revenue, grains and food between regions

• Led to agricultural and commercial expansion 

Zheng He

Zheng He was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty, and often regarded as the greatest admiral in Chinese history.

• Led most advanced ships of the world on savage voyages of exploration across Indian Ocean

• Demonstrated Chinese superiority at shipbuilding and navigation 

• Expanded China's political influence over maritime Asia 

gunpowder

First explosive developed in China, first used as fireworks by elites, later used in warfare by firing explosions at enemies

• Changed warfare forever by introducing a new, more lethal form of weapon to the world

samurai

Members of the Japanese military class during the Bakufu era who protected the Shoguns and Daimyos 

• The samurai were an essential member of political structure in Japan during the Bakufu era 

• Promotion of warrior values, such as martial art techniques, weapons, violent and important battles 

• Protected higher members of society - Shoguns and Daimyos 

Gempei Wars

Waged for five years from 1180, on Honshu between Taira and Minamoto families; resulted in destruction of Taira

• Established the Bakufu, military government 

  • Government and social legacy that lasted for multiple dynasties 

• Started “Feudal Age” 

bakufu

Military government established by the Minamoto following the Gempei Wars; centered at Kamakura; retained emperor, but real power resided in military government and samurai 

• New governing organizational system in Japan 

• New government and military roles 

• Diminished power of emperor 

• Power of warlords grew

shoguns

Military leaders of the Bakufu 

• Power over lands given to samurai in turn for loyalty and military support 

• Governed the country 

Ashikaga

Shogunate

Replaced the Kamakura regime in Japan; ruled from 1336 - 1573; destroyed rival Yoshino center of imperial authority 

• Took away power of emperor in shogunate 

• Power of Bushi warlords grew

• Civil war raged -> Provincial lords became to amass even more power 

• Japan was divided into 300 little kingdoms ruled by Daimyos

• Chivalrous qualities of Bushi era deteriorated 

daimyo

Warlord rulers of 300 small states following civil war and disruption of Ashika Shogunate; holdings consolidated into unified and bounded mini-states

• Tried to stabilize village life 

  • Introduced regular tax collection

  • Supported construction of irrigation systems

  • Built strong rural communities

  • Incentivized settlement of unoccupied areas

Sinification

Extensive adoption of chinese culture in other regions; typical of Korea, Japan and Vietnam

• Imports Chinese culture

• Language and etiquette

• Confucianism

• Buddhist art

• Shinto syncretism 

Koryo Dynasty

Tribal people of northern Korea; established an independent kingdom in the northern half of the peninsula in 37 BCE began a process of SInification 

• The Koryo Dynasty led to significant cultural and artistic advancements that still are prominent today

  • Expansion of BUddhism

  • Developed Celadon ceramics

  • Developed metal moveable printing press 

Yi Dynasty

Korean dynasty that succeeded Koryo dynasty following period of Mongol invasions; established in 1392; ruled Korea to 1910; restored aristocratic dominance and Chinese influence

• Adopted Confucianism, replacing Buddhism's influence in Korea 

• Social reform to become more conservative, following Confucian values 

• Established new aristocratic scholar-gentry dominance

• Created the yangban 

Khmers

Indianized rivals of the Vietnamese; moved into Mekong River delta region at a time of Vietnamese drive to the south 

• Rivaled Vietnamese civilizations 

• Dominated most of Southeast Asia at peak of time 

• Constructed advanced buildings

 Angkor Wat 

• Promoted Hinduism 

• Built strong trade links through the Mekong River 

• Driven to highlands by Vietnamese

• Intermarried with southern vietnamese -> adoption of their culture

Chams

Indianized rivals of the Vietnamese; drive into the highlands by the successful Vietnamese drive to the south 

• Vietnamese fought series of successful wars against the Chams 

• Drove Chams into the highlands 

• Vietnamese successfully expanded territory by driving them to the highlands 

• Southern Vietnamese intermarried with them, leading to adoption of some of their cultures

  • Separation between cultures of Northern and Southern 

Nguyen

Vietnamese state that was founded as a tributary state to the Qin empire 

• Modeled after Chinese empire 

  • Adopted Chinese governing and political practices 

• Challenged the Trinh family leading to long conflict over the rule of Vietnam 

• Sought to unite all of Vietnamese people under singular monarch 

• Conflict prevented recognition of external threat to Vietnam 

  • Roman Catholic Church

Trinh

Vietnamese noble family that ruled northern Vietnam during the Le dynasty 

• Ruled the North of Vietnam during sinification 

• Fought with the Nguyen to rule Vietnam

• Sought to unite all of Vietnamese people under singular monarch 

• Conflict prevented recognition of external threat to Vietnam 

  • Roman Catholic Church

Seljuk Turks

Nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia; staunch Sunnis; ruled in named of Abbasid caliphs from mid-11th century

• Ruled the remaining portions of Abbasid empire in name of caliphs 

• Purged Shi’a officials who had risen to power under Buyids

• Got rid of Shi’a influences  

• Restored political initiative to caliphate

• Ended threat of conquest by rival Shi’a dynasty 

• Defeated the Byzantines -> opened way to settlement of Asia Minor, or Anatolia, by nomadic people of Turkic origins -> Ottoman empire 

Ibn Kahldun

Muslim historian; developed concept that historie of nomadic conquerors had a cycle of three generations - strong, weak, dissolute 

• One of the greatest historians and social commentators of all time 

• Extensive travels in the Islamic world 

• Served as political advisor at Muslim courts in north Africa 

• Wrote universal history - The Muqadimah 

• Shared narratives on Islamic influence in Africa 

ulama

Orthodox religious scholars within Islam; pressed for a more conservative and restrictive theology; increasingly opposed to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking 

• Grew increasingly suspicious and hostile to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking 

• Against Muslim borrowing from ancient Greek learning 

• Insisted Qur’an was final, perfect revelation of divinity 

al-Ghazali

Brilliant Islamic theologian; struggled to fuse Greek and Qur’anic traditions; not entirely accepted by ulama

• Tried to fuse Greek and Qur’anic traditions

• Ideas were rejected by orthodox Ulama 

Mamluks

Muslim slave warriors; established a dynasty in Egypt; defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 and halted Mongol advance

• Defeated the Mongols, led by Hulego, when they tried to advance 

• Prevented further destruction of Muslim civilizations

• Established a dynasty in Egypt

Advances in Mathematics

(al-Tusi)

Al Tusi - Was one of the most celebrated Islamic scholars. He contributed to astronomy, law, logic, ethics, and mathematics, philosophy, and medicine. An observatory built under his direction was the most advanced in the world and produced the most accurate astronomical charts. Laid the groundwork for trigonometry as a separate subject.

• Made major corrections to the algebraic and geometric theories of ancient Greeks and great advances in use of basic concepts of trigonometry 

House of Wisdom

An academic center for research and translation of foreign texts that was established in Baghdad in 830 C.E. by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun.

• Very important hub of scholarly growth and collaboration 

• Preserved the knowledge and academic works of many ancient civilizations 

• Critical to advancements in academia in Ancient World

• Scholars from various fields came to share their knowledge 

astrolabe

Astronomical instrument developed by Muslim scholars used for scientific measurements and navigation

• Gave ability to astrologically determine prayer times and to find the correct direction of Mecca 

• Advanced navigation

• Allowed for calculation of position of the Sun and prominent stars 

Sunnism

Islam faith that believes that the first four caliphs were “rightly guided”; believes Muslim rulers should follow Muhammeds’ example 

• Split between Muslims (against Shia) led to battles and conflicts, such as Battle of Siffin 

• Supported the Umayyads 

• Long-lasting hostility with Shia

Shia

Islam faith that believes that Ali, Muhammed’s son-in-law, should have succeeded Muhammed; believe all rulers should be descendents of Muhammed

• Split between Muslims (against Sunnis) led to battles and conflicts, such as Battle of Siffin 

• Supported the Ali 

• Long-lasting hostility with Sunnis

Sufism

Muslim mystics who seek communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals

• Helped spread Islam in India 

• Built up sizable following and movement was central factor in continuing expansion of Muslim religion and Islamic civilization 

• Believed in more mystical and spiritual practices and beliefs 

Greco-Islamic

Medical Knowledge

Fusion of Greek and Islamic medical practices and knowledge 

• Muslim scientists advanced many medical operations and works 

• Established best hospitals of the world

• Improved upon Greek practices

• Introduced basic machines and techniques devised in China into Islamic World

Arabic Numerals

Numerals divided by Hindus that were adopted by Arab thinkers; proved central to two scientific revolutions 

• Central to two major scientific revolutions

  • Development of Algebra and decimal system

Muhammad of

Ghur

Military commander of Persian extraction who ruled small mountain kingdom in Afghanistan; began process of conquest to establish Muslim political control of northern India; brought much of Indus valley, Sing, and northwestern India under his control 

• Tenacious military commander of Persian extraction 

• Put together string of military victories that brought much of Indus valley and north central India under his control

Delhi Sultanate

The first Islamic government established within India from 1206-1520. Controlled a small area of northern India and was centered in Delhi.

• First dynasty to establish Muslim rule in India 

• Ruled by a Sultanate

• No change in social structure

• Customs like sati and ban on widow remarriage were established 

Theravada Buddhism

"Way of the Elders" branch of Buddhism followed in Sri Lanka and much of Southeast Asia. Theravada remains close to the original principles set forth by the Buddha; it downplays the importance of gods and emphasizes austerity and the individual's search for enlightenment.

• Growth of Buddhism in Southeast Asian countries, such as Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia 

Mahayana Buddhism

"Great Vehicle" branch of Buddhism followed in China, Japan, and Central Asia. The focus is on reverence for Buddha and for bodhisattvas, enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment.

• Significant developments in Buddhist doctrines and philosophy 

• Believed in many Buddhas 

• Largest school of Buddhism in the world 

Tibetan Buddhism

A Buddhist doctrine that includes elements from India that are not Buddhist and elements of preexisting shamanism, a tradition of Buddhism that teaches that people can use special techniques to harness spiritual energy and can achieve nirvana in a single lifetime.

• Spread Buddhism into Tibet and China 

• Became dominant cultural form in Tibet 

  • Influenced their politics, arts, social norms

Sultanate of Malacca

Portuguese factory or fortified trade town located on the tip of the Malayan peninsula; traditionally a center for trade among the southeastern Asian islands

• Controlled trade in the Malay Archipelago 

• Important, flourishing center for commercial activity and trade in southeastern Asian islands 

• Center of trade for Indian cloth, Chinese porcelain silk and Malay spices 

Srivijaya

Trading empire centered on Malacca Straits between Malaya and Sumatra; controlled trade of empire; Buddhist government resistant to Muslim missionaries; fall opened up southeastern Asia to Muslim conversion

• After collapse of Srivijaya -> opened up for widespread introduction of Islam  

Sundiata

The “Lion Prince”; a member of the Keita clan; created a unified state that became the Mali Empire

• Created unified state of Mali 

• Created basic rules and relationships of Malinke society and outlined government of Mali 

• Became Mali empire or Mansa

• Originator of social arrangements in Mali 

  • Clan arrangements 

griots

Professional oral historians that served as keepers of traditions and advisors to kings within the Mali Empire

• Served as keepers of traditions and advisors to kings

• Began epic histories of Mai with Sundiata, the “Lion Prince” 

• Allowed for African history to be passed down and learned about 

Ibn Battuta

Arab traveler who described African societies and cultures in his travel record

• Spread information about African society and travels to other parts of the world such as in Arabic Peninsula 

• Wrote about how safe and secure African trade routes were 

Timbuktu

Flourishing city of commercial and trade exchange in Western Sudan

• City of flourishing commercial exchange 

• Population of 50,000 

• Cultural and academic hub 

• Many Muslim universities and mosques 

Songhay

Successor state to Mali; dominated middle reaches of Niger valley; formed as independent kingdom under a Berber dynasty; capital at Gao; reached imperial status under Sunni Ali

• Dominated middle areas of Niger valley 

• Became center of trade as new sources of gold from West Africa passed through its territory 

• Fusion of Islamic and pagan practices and principles continued

  • Muslim clerics upset about their pagan practices 

• Remained dominant power in the region until end of 16th century 

Mali

Unified state of Malinke People that became the Mali Empire under Sundiata; become extremely wealthy through gold trade 

• Controlled most of Niger valley almost to Atlantic coast 

• Sumptuous court was established and hosted large number of traders

• Extremely wealthy from trade 

• Mansa Musa

  • Pilgrimage to Mecca brought attention of Muslim world to Mali 

  • Cultivated Islamic studies and faith 

Sharia

Sharia stands for Islamic or sacred law. It is an Arabic word meaning “the way” or “the path to water.” For centuries, Muslim scholars have given a broad definition of Sharia reflecting the diversity of interpretations on how Muslims have attempted to best understand and practice their faith.

• Sudanic states social customs (matrilineal) were contrary to the normal customs inscribed in the Sharia 

• Outlined the expected customs of Muslims

Zenj

Arabic term for the east African coast

• Attracted Muslim visitors and refugees from Oman and Persian gulf by possibilities of trade 

• Site of important coastal trading ports

  • Kilwa, Pate, Zanzibar 

Swahili City-States

During the 10th century, several city-states flourished along the Swahili Coast and adjacent islands, including Kilwa, Malindi, Gedi, Pate, Comoros, and Zanzibar. These early Swahili city-states were Muslim, cosmopolitan, and politically independent of one another.

• Contained mosques, tombs, and palaces of cut stone and coral 

• Ivory, gold, iron, slaves, and exotic animals were exported from these ports in exchange for silks from Persia and porcelain from China 

• Kilwa flourished in international trade 

• Fusion of Islamic and traditional beliefs and practices

• Swahili language was dominant 

• Islam penetrated very little into these cities 

Kongo

Kingdom based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by late 15th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy

• Firm agricultural base -> developed skills of weaving, pottery, blacksmithing and carving 

• Advancement in working of wood, copper, and iron 

• Women and men had equal division in labor roles 

• Confederation of smaller states brought under control of the king - > divided into eight major provinces 

Great Zimbabwe

Bantu confederation of Shona-speaking peoples located between Zambezi and Limpopo rivers; developed after 9th century; featured royal courts built of stone; created centralized state by 15th century; king took titles of Mwene Mutapa

• Prominent religious center of Islamic faith

• Developed advanced architectural monuments that attracted visitors 

• Center for international trade as exporters of gold and ivory 

• Control of gold fields provides source of power and trade 

• Mwene Mutapa led rapid expansion 

• By 16th century: internal divisions and rebellion split the kingdom apart and emphasis on cattle as symbol of wealth led to soil exhaustion 

• Fine iron weapons and regal bearings impressed Europeans

camel saddles

Device developed to make traveling on camels more efficient and comfortable for Arabic merchants 

• Camel saddles also promoted trading along the Silk Road and Arabic Peninsula because it made traveling through deserts, on camels, significantly more efficient and easier 

monsoon winds

Tropical winds in Southeast Asia; influenced overseas trade and transportation

• Knowledge of monsoons led to increased trade in Indian Ocean

• Merchants used monsoon winds to move quicker across Indian ocean region 

• Made trading more predictable and less dangerous 

• Promoted trade across Indian Ocean

luxury goods

Goods highly desired in the market, expensive and commonly purchased by elites, ex:silk or jewelry 

• Luxury goods grew silk roads prominence, for foreign civilizations allured by lucrative silk and jewelry in Asian civilizations

• Transportation of luxury goods was hazardous in hostile regions 

• Luxury goods also important in boosting economies of those participating in trade, such as China and Persia (Silk, textiles)

caravans

Group of merchants, pilgrims, or travelers journeying together, usually for mutual protection in deserts or other hostile regions.

• Caravans allowed for the re-establishment of important trade routes because traders could travel along them without fear of being robbed or hurt