1. Nature of Civil Societies
• Civil societies are voluntary organizations independent of the state (e.g., NGOs, unions).
• They provide a platform for political participation and advocacy.
• Encourage civic engagement and hold governments accountable.
• Strengthen democracy by promoting social trust and collective action.
• In authoritarian regimes, civil societies may face repression or co-optation.
2. Liberal vs. Illiberal Democracies (Substantive vs. Procedural)
• Liberal democracies emphasize individual rights, rule of law, and free, fair elections.
• Illiberal democracies hold elections but lack protections for civil liberties and rule of law.
• Substantive democracies ensure political rights, freedoms, and equality.
• Procedural democracies focus solely on the process (e.g., elections), not on outcomes.
• Example: Russia is often classified as an illiberal democracy.
3. What is Legitimacy?
• Legitimacy is the right to rule, accepted by the people.
• Can be derived from tradition, charisma, or legal-rational systems.
• Examples:
• Traditional legitimacy: monarchy in the UK.
• Charismatic legitimacy: leaders like Nelson Mandela.
• Rational-legal legitimacy: modern democracies like the U.S.
• Legitimacy strengthens stability and political order.
• Lack of legitimacy can lead to unrest and state failure.
4. What is Sovereignty?
• Sovereignty is a state’s authority to govern itself without external interference.
• Internal sovereignty refers to control within borders.
• External sovereignty is recognized by other states (e.g., UN membership).
• Challenges to sovereignty: supranational organizations (EU), separatist movements.
• Example: Taiwan faces disputes over its sovereignty.
5. Characteristics of a Failed State
• Inability to provide basic services (e.g., security, health care).
• Loss of control over territory or monopoly on violence.
• Widespread corruption and weak institutions.
• Examples: Somalia, Yemen.
• Often a result of internal conflict, economic collapse, or external intervention.
6. Globalization and Its Consequences
• Increased interconnectedness in trade, technology, and culture.
• Positive effects: economic growth, spread of democracy.
• Negative effects: loss of sovereignty, cultural homogenization.
• Rise of supranational organizations like WTO, IMF.
• Globalization can exacerbate inequality within and between nations.
7. Characteristics of Authoritarian Regimes
• Concentrated power, often in one leader or a small group.
• Limited political freedoms and suppression of dissent.
• Use of propaganda and surveillance to maintain control.
• Examples: China, North Korea.
• May rely on patron-client systems to build loyalty.
8. Characteristics of Democratic Regimes
• Free and fair elections.
• Protection of civil liberties and human rights.
• Rule of law and separation of powers.
• Examples: UK, U.S., Germany.
• High levels of political and social trust.
9. Unitary, Federal, Confederal Systems
• Unitary: Centralized power (e.g., UK).
• Federal: Power shared between national and regional governments (e.g., U.S.).
• Confederal: Loose union of sovereign states (e.g., EU before deeper integration).
• Federal systems allow for regional autonomy but can lead to inefficiencies.
10. Parliamentary vs. Presidential vs. Semi-Presidential Systems
• Parliamentary: Executive derives power from legislature; no separation of powers (e.g., UK).
• Presidential: Separation of powers; president elected independently (e.g., U.S.).
• Semi-presidential: Shared power between president and prime minister (e.g., France).
• Parliamentary systems often lead to faster legislation but weaker checks on power.
11. Economic Systems
• Capitalism: Market-driven economy.
• Socialism: State control of major industries.
• Mixed economies: Combination of market and state control.
• Indicators of success: GDP, Gini index (inequality), HDI.
• Resource curse: Overreliance on natural resources can hinder development (e.g., Venezuela).
12. Normative vs. Empirical Statements
• Normative: Opinions or value judgments (e.g., “Democracy is the best system”).
• Empirical: Factual, testable statements (e.g., “The U.S. has a presidential system”).
• Important distinction in political science analysis.
13. Data That Measures Development
• GDP: Economic size.
• Gini Index: Income inequality (low = more equality).
• HDI: Human Development Index (measures health, education, income).
• High GDP doesn’t always mean high HDI (e.g., oil-rich states).
14. Preconditions for Democracy
• Economic development and education.
• Strong civil society and middle class.
• Transparent institutions and rule of law.
• Supportive political culture (e.g., tolerance, participation).
15. Social Cleavages
• Divisions in society based on ethnicity, religion, class, etc.
• Cross-cutting cleavages: Promote unity.
• Coinciding cleavages: Intensify divisions (e.g., Northern Ireland).
16. Patron-Client Systems
• Exchange of goods/services for political support.
• Common in authoritarian regimes and developing countries.
• Undermines democracy and leads to corruption.
17. Corporatist Systems
• State controls and integrates interest groups.
• Limits pluralism but ensures state oversight (e.g., Mexico in PRI era).
• Contrasts with pluralist systems where interest groups compete freely.
18. Resource Curse
• Countries with abundant natural resources often experience corruption, conflict, and poor governance.
• Overreliance on exports (e.g., oil) harms diversification.
• Examples: Nigeria, Venezuela.
19. Bureaucracies and the People That Work for Them
• Bureaucracies implement policies; ideally merit-based.
• Problems: inefficiency, corruption, lack of accountability.
• Important in maintaining state capacity and governance.
20. Democratic Transition and Consolidation
• Transition: Shift from authoritarianism to democracy.
• Consolidation: Stabilizing democracy through institutions and culture.
• Consolidation requires time, trust, and strong institutions.
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