Unit 1: The Global Tapestry (1200-1450)

Developments in East Asia

How the Song Dynasty Maintained and Justified its Power?

• Confucianism: Song rulers revived Confucianism, emphasizing hierarchical relationships in society and the practice of filial piety.
  • DEFINITION: A philosophy that taught human society is hierarchical by nature, society was composed of unequal relationships. (ex: father > sons, husbands > wife’s, rulers > subjects)
  • Filial piety: practice of honoring one’s ancestors and parents
  • Neo-Confucianism: influence of Buddhist and Daoist philosophical ideas
    • Note: the revival of Confucianism is a historical continuity between ancient China and the Song, also demonstrates innovation
• Imperial bureaucracy: The Song Dynasty relied on a large bureaucracy to ensure obedience to the emperor’s rule, with positions awarded based on merit through civil service exams.

Women in Song China

• Subordinate (lower in rank) position in the hierarchy – forbidden to remarry if divorced
• Foot binding was a sign of high social status and made the feet of women much smaller and had trouble walking

Influence on Neighboring States

• Korea: Maintained a tributary relationship with China, adopting aspects of Chinese culture (elite members), including Confucian principles and a similar civil service exam system.
• Japan: Voluntarily adopted cultural traits from China, such as the imperial bureaucracy and Buddhism.
  • used whatever they found useful in Chinese society and politics.
• Vietnam: Also maintained a tributary relationship with China, adopting Confucianism, Buddhism, and the civil service examination system, while women had a higher status compared to China.

Role of Buddhism in Chinese Society

• Buddhism spread to China, with different branches emerging, including Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism.
  • Theravada: original form, restricted to monks only for a select few
  • Mahayana: Buddhist teachings were available to all, emphasized compassion, made the Buddha into an object of devotion
  • Tibetan: emphasized more mystical practices (lying prostrate, elaborate imaginings of deities)
• Buddhism coexisted with Confucianism in Chinese society, with the Song Dynasty emphasizing more traditional Chinese ideas, but still acknowledging the significant role of Buddhism.
  • Four Noble Truths: 1) life is suffering, 2) we suffer because we crave, 3) we cease suffering when we cease craving, 4) the eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving
  • Eightfold path: principles and practices that a Buddhist must follow (moral lifestyle + practice of meditation)

Song Economy and Prosperity

• 1) Widespread commercialization: China produced excess goods and sold them on the world market, utilizing paper money and credit practices.
• 2) Iron and steel production: Both large-scale manufacturers and home-based artisans contributed to the production of iron and steel, used for warfare, trading, taxation, and agriculture.
• 3) Agricultural innovations: Introduction of Champa rice, a drought-resistant and high-yield crop, led to a population BOOM and increased agricultural output.
• 4) Transportation innovations: Expansion of the Grand Canal (travel cheaper), improvements in navigation with the magnetic compass, and advancements in shipbuilding techniques (Junk ships with rudders).

Developments in Dar-Al-Islam

aka House of Islam!

Three Major Religions

• Judaism (originated in the Middle East)
  • Monotheistic religion practiced by the Jews
  • Influenced the development of Christianity and Islam
• Christianity
  • Established by Jesus Christ, a Jewish Prophet
  • Followers spread the message of salvation by grace
  • Early Christians initially persecuted minority, later adopted by the Roman Empire (most significant influence of Christianity)
  • Influenced the organization of states in Europe and Africa
• Islam
  • Founded by the Prophet Muhammad (7th century, Arabian Peninsula).
  • Taught salvation through righteous actions (almsgiving, prayer, and fasting).
  • Spread rapidly throughout the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
  • Facilitated trade and led to the rise of prosperous Islamic states.

Rise of New Islamic Empires

• Abbasid Caliphate (8th century): ethnically Arab + in power during Golden Age of Islam (innovations/advancements) → declined → new Islamic empires rose (made up of TURKIC people).
  • Seljuk Empire: Central Asia, pastoral people brought in by the Abbasids as a military force to expand their empire by force → Seljuk warriors claimed more political power.
  • Mamluk Sultanate: Turkic Warriors (Mamluks) seized power in Egypt under the leadership of Saladin (needed more labor) → gave rise to another Turkic Muslim state.
  • Delhi Sultanate: Turkic Muslims established a state in South Asia.
    • NOTE: Continuity in Muslim empire: 1) military in charge of administration, 2) Implemented Sharia Law (code of laws established in the Quran).

Expansion of Islam

• Military Expansion: Delhi Sultanate.
• Merchant Activity (trade): Ex - North Africa ruled by Muslims who stimulated trade throughout Africa → Mali converted to Islam.
• Muslim Missionaries (Sufis): Sufism - emphasized mystical experience, and was available to anyone (significant force for the spread of Islam worldwide).

Intellectual Innovations and Transfers

• Mathematics (Nasser): Invented Trigonometry to better understand how planets/stars move through the sky.
• House of Wisdom: Established in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam (library to study religion, scholars responsible for preserving philosophy by Plato and Aristotle).
  • Translated them into Arabic and made extensive commentaries, works would’ve been lost forever → translations went to Europe, became the basis for the Renaissance.

State Building in South & Southeast Asia

Belief Systems

• Hinduism: Dominant in South Asia (India)
  • Polytheistic belief system → sets apart from other monotheistic religions
  • Ultimate goal = To reunite their individual souls to all pervasive world soul aka Brahman
    • Involves cycling through death and rebirth (reincarnation) to achieve
  • Provided the conditions for a unified culture in India → structured Indian society (caste system, couldn’t move up in status)
  • Ethnic religion: Bound to a particular people in a particular place → don’t spread well

• Islam → Turkic Muslim invaders came into South Asia and set up a Muslim empire (Delhi Sultanate)
  • Since Muslims were in charge in large parts of India → religion of the elite + spread throughout Southeast Asia
• Buddhism: Founded in India (shared several beliefs with Hinduism) = more likely to spread + its influence was dying in India by 1200
  • 

Belief Systems CHANGE

• Hinduism (Bhakti Movement = Bhaktis)
  • Encouraged believers to worship one particular god in the Hindu pantheon of gods
  • Rejected the hierarchy of Hinduism
  • Encouraged spiritual experiences to all people
• Islam (Sufism = Sufis)
  • More mystical, spiritual experience-based version of Islam
  • -
• Buddhism
  • Despite it being a universalizing religion, in South Asia, it become more and more exclusive → on a decline

State building in South Asia

• Muslim leaders had a lot of trouble imposing Islam on India (a minority religion here)
• Resistance to Muslim rule → Rajput Kingdoms:
  • rival and warring Hindu kingdoms, some were conquered by Muslim rulers and some were independent Hindu states
• Vijayanagara Empire (South)
  • Rulers wanted to extend the rule of the Delhi Sultanate to the South → sent emissaries
  • Emissaries were Hindus who converted to Islam → established this

State building in Southeast Asia

note: when a state is sea-based or land-based, it’s talking about whether it gets their power from the sea or the land

• Sea-based states
  • Srivijaya Empire: Buddhist but influenced by Indian Hindu culture
    • Had control over the Strait of Malacca (main power source) → imposed taxes on ships passing by
  • Majapahit Kingdom (Java): originally a Hindu kingdom, but had strong Buddhist influences
    • Maintained power: Created a tributary system among the states in the region
• Land-Based States
  • Sinhala Dynasties (Sri Lanka): Buddhist state
  • Khmer Empire: founded as a Hindu empire
    • Prosperous state and created a Hindu building (Angkor wat) → represented the entire Hindu universe
    • Khmer rulers converted to Buddhism and added Buddha’s all over the temple
    • note: blending of religions = syncretism

State Building in the Americas

Mesoamerican civilizations

• note: Decentralized power (people they conquered were set up as tributary states)
• note: centralized power = a govt where power is concentrated in a single authority
• CONTEXT: Maya civilization (250-900 CE)
  • Built urban centers, had a good writing system, math (concept of zero)
  • State structure was a decentralized collection of city-states that were often at war with one another
  • Fought to create a network of tributary states among neighboring regions
  • Emphasized human sacrifice (believed the sun was a deity)
• Aztec Empire (1345-1528)
  • CONTEXT
    • Mexica people (semi-nomadic) who migrated South and built their military prowess
    • By 1428, they consolidated a lot of power in the region → alliance with two other Mesoamerican states → established the Aztec empire
    • To secure their legitimacy as rulers → Mexica claimed heritage from older, more renowned Mesoamerican people
    • Expansion: War provided human blood for the Sun (religious motivation) + Tributary system
  • Capital City: Tenochtitlan → held a vast population → Markets were established meaning their economy was commercialized to some degree + had palaces for rulers and pyramid temples
• Andean Civilizations
  • CONTEXT
    • the Wari (1000 CE) → included in a series of societies that were developed along the Indian mountains
  • Inca Empire (established around the 1400s)
    • Borrowed a lot from the Wari and older civilizations
    • 
    • Established the Mit’a System = required the labor of everyone for a period of time each year to work on state projects (mining or military service)
      • Made use of systems by earlier civilizations
• North American Civilizations
  • Mississippian culture (8th/9th century CE)
    • established in the Mississippi River Valley + represented the first large-scale civilization in North America
    • society was developed around agriculture + thoroughly hierarchical
    • Known for their extensive mound-building projects → acted as burial sites for important people + hosted religious ceremonies on the top of the mountains
      • had enough people to construct these + major urban areas were surrounded by these
      • Cahokia → largest urban center of the Mississippian culture
  • Chaco + Mesa Verde societies (after the rise of Mississippian culture)
    • dry as heck → made innovative ways to store water
    • weren’t many trees to provide timber for structures → Chaco carved Sandstone blocks out of massive quarries, imported Timber from other locations, and built massive structures (largest in NA)
      • Mesa Verde solution to this → built housing complex into the sides of cliffs using sandstone!

State Building in Africa

• extra notes
  • note: sub-saharan = sahara desert
  • African states (during this period) adopted Islam to organize their societies and facilitate trade with the larger network in Dar-al-Islam
• State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa
  • Swahili Civilization (Africa’s east coast, 8th century)
    • collection of city-states + popular due to their location gave them access to the Indian Ocean trade
    • Muslim Merchants who came here were interested in → Gold, Ivory, Timber, and Enslaved people
      • Since they were focused on trade → goods imported from farmers and pastoralists
    • Islam was a dominant belief system → Conversion among the Swahili elite took place voluntarily was good since it connected them to Dar-al-Islam
      • Islam influenced the Swahili language (hybrid between the Bantu languages and Arabic)
    • 
  • Great Zimbabwe (South)
    • Got rich by being in the Indian Ocean Trade by controlling ports on the coast
    • Imported gold, but their economic prosperity revolved around farming and cattle herding → with extra money, the rulers built the capital city (the largest structure in Africa) and represented the seat of power for the state
• State Building in West & East Africa
  • Hausa Kingdoms: a collection of city-states that were politically independent and gained power/wealth through trade across the TRANS-SAHARAN trade network
    • 
  • Ethiopia (christian)
    • Christian rulers built massive stone churches → communicated to their subjects who were in charge
    • (13th century) → Grew wealthy through trade (traded in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean) + traded SALT (most valuable good)
    • Centralized power → King sat at top + class hierarchy below the king

Developments in Europe

• Christianity in Europe
  • CONTEXT: In the Roman Empire → Constantine made Christianity the official state religion which united Romans (476 CE = Roman empire fell ☹ )
  • Byzantine Empire (eastern half of the Roman empire): kept Christianity alive in Europe
    • Eastern Orthodox Christianity → helped rulers justify and consolidate their power structure (highly centralized)
      • Roman Catholic Christianity
    • Byzantine got attacked by neighboring Islamic powers → lost a lot of territory BUT had a lot of influence still on Southwest Europe and East Mediterranean
    • 1453 → Ottoman Empire (muslim power) attacked the capital city: Constantinople and renamed it to Istanbul → END TO THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
  • Kievan Rus - adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity (before the fall of Constantinople)
    • Borrowed from Byzantine → alphabet, architectural style, using church structures to organize the state
  • Western Europe → isolated from the world (lots of Roman Catholicism in this region)
    • Church hierarchy (popes, bishops, cardinals) provided a common structure in states across Western Europe
    • Roman Catholic Church also made European Christians into a religious Fury → went to fight Muslims in distant lands (CRUSADES)
      • First Crusade → Europeans got beat up by Muslims
      • Islam and Judaism held important minority positions (EX: Iberian Peninsula, Muslims invaded and ran the place aka Muslim Rule in Europe + Jews were around Europe and participated in trade)
      • Christians were suspicious of Jews → anti-semitism (Jewish marginalization/persecution
• Political Decentralization in the West
  • Around this period, there were no large empires in Europe!!
  • Order was organized around a system known as FEUDALISM
  • Feudalism - a system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights
    • Greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords/kings + Land was exchanged to keep everyone loyal
      • Land was owned and ruled independently
  • Manorialism - peasants (serfs) bound to land and worked in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces
    • Serfs vs Slaves (serfs weren’t owned by the lord)
  • Around 1200 Europe’s political structures began to change: Monarchs in states began to gain power and centralize their states by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies → prior to this, Nobility had the most power
    • Increasing powerful monarchs → looking towards one another and competing for influence and territory → wars of conquest to determine who was the biggest power

UNIT 2: NETWORKS OF EXCHANGE

THE SILK ROADS

Definition: network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas (cultural diffusion) across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450

• Mainly luxury items were exchanged (Chinese SILK)

The Silk Roads Expand: CAUSES

• Innovations in Commercial practices
  • Development of money economies
    • Paper money → merchants could deposit bills in one location and withdraw the same amount in another location
  • Increasing use of credit
    • Flying Money → Merchants could secure pieces of paper in one region then go to another region to exchange the paper for coins! → increased expansion and networks
  • Rise of Banks
    • Banking houses (Europe) → bill of exchange (merchants receive the amount of money equal to the bill)
• Innovations in Transportation
  • Caravanserai: series of guest houses on routes used for rest areas + provided safety and were centers of cultural diffusion
  • Saddles: made riding easier + held large cargos

The Silk Roads Expand: EFFECTS

• Effect #1 - New Trading Cities: located along the routes and had a lot of wealth
  • provided places to stop and resupply
  • Kashgar: convergence of major routes → suitable for agriculture
    • With increasing demand for interregional trade → had highly profitable markets and a center for Islamic scholarship
  • Samarkand: repeat of Kashgar
    • 
• Effect #2 - Increased demand for luxury goods: chinese silk and porcelain
  • As demand grew, the production of these goods increased
  • Production of luxury goods in distant markets had effects on populations → EX: peasants in the Yangtze River Valley spent more time producing luxury goods, they spent less time on food production → created proto-industrialization
  • Proto-Industrialization: Process where China produced more goods than their own population could consume (extra goods sold in distant markets) → with all the extra money they reinvested it into the Iron/Steel industry
• Effect #3 - Cultural Diffusion
  • EX: Islamic merchants spread Islam + Buddhist merchants spread Buddhism

The Mongol Empire

(largest continuous land-based empire)

pastoral nomads: traveling people who moved depending on the season

• Rise of the Mongol Empire
  • Temujin: Mongol (pastoral nomads living in the Gobi Desert) + powerful leader + united the Mongol groups and named himself Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan)
  • After he died, his sons who succeeded him kept expanding the empire → reached its peak in 1279
  • How did they conquer so much even if they were outnumbered?
    • Military organization: groups of 10k, 1k, 100, and 10 + superior weaponry and skill (larger bows that shot farther + skilled horse riders)
    • Lucky timing: sack of Baghdad
    • Reputation for brutality: killed nearly everyone except a few so they could warn the others of them → created fear so they can surrender
  • Pax Mongolica: happened after they ruled and conquered a lot
    • Chinggis Khan’s grandsons organized the empire into several khanates or military regions
    • Mongol rulers adopted a lot of the cultural norms of the people they ruled: EX - Kublai Khan ruled over China and made the Yuan Dynasty → united warring factions, many Confucian elite believed he possessed the Mandate of Heaven
      • Mandate of Heaven: Ruler who brings peace must be the rightful ruler
      • Kublai Khan established himself as a confucian style ruler
• Mongol and Economics
  • Silk roads were never more organized and prosperous than they were under Mongol rule → Mongols were responsible for protecting everyone within the Silk Roads
  • Improved Infrastructure → built bridges and repaired roads → facilitated trade
  • Increased communication: EX - Yam system: a series of communication and relay stations spread across the empire
• Technological & Cultural Transfers
  • Mongols had a high opinion of intellectuals and skilled artisans → didn’t kill them when they were conquering
    • Mongol policy: Send skilled people to different parts of the empire → encouraged the transfer of technology, ideas, and culture
  • Medical Knowledge: Greek/Islamic scholars to Western Europe
  • Adoption of Uyghur Script: Their language (Chinggis Khan needed to have a Mongolian language)

Mongols fell out of power as quickly as they rose to power → many under Mongol rule redoubled their efforts to install powerful, centralized leaders to create a unified culture (paved the way for the rise of the modern world)

Indian Ocean Trade Network

Definition: A network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade

Maritime = Sea-based

• Causes of Expansion
  • #1: Collapse of the Mongol Empire: when the Mongol fell apart, so did the safety of travel along the Silk Roads → greater emphasis on maritime trade in the Indian Ocean
  • #2: Commercial Practices: money economies + ability to buy goods on credit → made trade easier and increased the use of these routes
  • #3: Transportation Technologies: Magnetic Compass (gave direction) + Astrolabe (accurate location) + Lateen sail (allowed ships to take wind in any direction), Knowledge of Monsoon Winds (blew in dif directions based on seasons) + Improvements in ship builds (Junk ships = massive ship that would carry large loads)
    • Dhows → Arab traders used these and hauled more cargo
  • 
  • #4: Spread of Islam: Islam was a belief system friendly to merchants, because Muhammad was a merchant → increased trade along sea-based routes

Effects of the Growth of the Indian Oc. Network

• Effect #1: Growth of powerful trading cities
  • Swahili city-states → built mosques that displayed their wealth + location was right on the Indian Ocean Trade
  • Malacca (capital city of the sultanate of Malacca): Controlled the Strait of Malacca → got rich from the Indian Oc. Trade and expanded their power (taxed ships that passed through the Strait)
  • Gujarat (India’s west coast) - With its massive coastline and rich agricultural areas → traded cotton textile and indigo + exchanged for gold and silver (taxed ships coming and going from its ports → increased wealth)
• Effect #2: Diasporic Communities: group of people from one place who establish a home in another place while retaining their cultural customs
  • Became a connective tissue holding the Indian Oc. Network together + increasing its scope
  • EX: Chinese merchants would arrive in ports around southeast asia and the diasporic chinese merchants living there would interact with the local merchants and the govt to facilitate trade
• Effect #3: Cultural & Technological Transfers (STUDY)
  • Just as significant as the goods exchanged
  • Zheng He: Sent by the Ming Dynasty to go explore the Indian Oc. + enroll other states in China’s tributary system
    • First voyage: had many ships with crews that were equipped with the latest military tech (gunpowder cannons) → later adopted in many regions

Trans-Saharan Trade Network

Definition: a series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the MEditerranean world with the interior of West Africa and the rest of sub-Saharan Africa

• Causes of Expansion
  • Transportation Technologies: CAMELS + Saddles + Caravanserais → since merchants could travel more comfortably, carry big loads, and find shelter → expanded the Trans-Saharan network
    • GOODS TRADED: Gold, Kola Nuts (source of caffeine), horses, SALT!!
    • Each region specialized in creating and growing various goods → made the demand to trade with each other → created the expansion of networks
• Growth of Empires
  • Mali Empire: grew wealthy because of its participation in the Trans-Saharan network
    • Exported goods (GOLD) + gained wealth/power by taxing merchants travelling through their region
    • 
    • Mansa Musa (Muslim Ruler): Embarked on the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) → left with a giant entourage + stopped in Egypt to resupply
      • in Egypt, him and his crew injected so much gold into the Egyptian economy → Value of all existing gold plummeted
      • Further monopolized trade between the North and the interior of the continent → increased the wealth of Mali + facilitating the growth of existing trade networks

Cultural & Environmental Effects of Connectivity

Cultural Effects

DONT FORGET: Islam was supportive of merchant activity + Dar al-islam had many places that Muslim merchants could sell their goods → encouraged leaders in various states to convert to Islam

EX: Swahili civilization grew large bc they adopted Islam

• Trade Networks and Diffusion
  • #1 Cultural transfers: spread of belief systems (EX: Buddhism spread from India to East Asia via the Silk Roads → Buddhism changed overtime)
    • To make buddhist teachings intelligible to the Chinese → merchants/monks explained them in terms of Daoism (belief system indigenous to China)
    • Buddhism + Daoism = Chan Buddhism (popular among lower classes) (syncretism)
    • Buddhism exported to Japan → Zen Buddhism
  • #2: Literary and Artistic Transfers: House of Wisdom (Muslim scholars translated Greek/Roman works) → Transferred to Europe that sparked the Renaissance
  • #3: Scientific and Technological transfers: Papermaking + Movable Type (modified and adapted by Europeans) spread to Europe → increase in literacy
    • Spread of Gunpowder from China (Mongols): adapted by Islamic empires + European states → to blow up stuff (altered the balance of power)
• Effects on Trade on Cities
  • Hangzhou (at the end of the Grand Canal): One of China’s most significant trading cities → urbanization + increase population
  • Samarkand/Kashgar: Grew in power and influence by facilitating trade → increased their productivity
  • CITIES IN DECLINE
    • Baghdad (capital of Islamic cultural/artistic achievement): Mongols rose to power and sacked it + ended the Abbasid Empire
    • Constantinople (capital of Byzantine Empire): Ottomans sacked it → renamed it to Istanbul
• Increased Interregional Travel
  • Ibn Battuta (Muslim Scholar from Morocco): Traveled all over Dar Al Islam + Took notes about places, people, rulers, and cultures → travels possible with trade routes + told stories of the places he visited (helped his readers understand cultures across the world)
  • Marco Polo: Traveled from Italy to China + traveled throughout Indian Oc. → wrote about court of Kublai Khan and China
  • Margery Kemp (christian mystic): Made pilgrimages to christianity’s holy sites + dictated her observations to others to write them down → observations provided invaluable insights of how Christianity was practiced across dif cultures of Europe/Middle East

Environmental Effects

• Diffusion of Crops/Agricultural Transfers
  • #1: Bananas: Rainforests in Africa provided good conditions for bananas to flourish → diets expanded + population BOOM
    • Bantu people were able to migrate things and parts of the banana (Yam: their main source) → able to move places where the Yam couldn’t grow bc they relied on Bananas!
  • #2 Champa Rice: China had a population BOOM
  • #3 Citrus Fruits (orange/limes): Introduced by Muslim traders into Europe via the Mediterranean trade routes (spread throughout Europe/North Africa) → diets + better health
• Diffusion of Diseases
  • BUBONIC PLAGUE (Black Death): Emerged in North China → spread rapidly across the Silk Roads and the Indian Oc. Trade routes
    • Middle East: Killed nearly 1/3 of their population + Europe: killed ½ of their population

UNIT 3: LAND-BASED EMPIRES (1450-1750)

note: Before this period, two major divisions of Islam developed (Shi’a and Sunni) → argued who was the successor of Muhammad (Shi’a - Blood relative, Sunni - Elected)

Land-Based Empires EXPAND

• Gunpowder empires (came out on top)
  • expanding geographically
  • main cause of expansion: adoption of gunpowder weapons
• THE MAIN 4 GP EMPIRES
  • Ottoman Empire (most significant Islamic empire):
    • Expansion: control of the Dardanelles + adopted gunpowder weapons
    • Sacked Constantinople: Mehmed II and his army raided this city and renamed it to Istanbul (empire expanded)
  • Safavid Empire (1500s): Ismail (the shah) and declared it as a Shi’a State
    • Shah Abbas expanded the Safavid military and adopted gunpowder weapons
  • Mughal Empire (replaced the Delhi Sultanate, 16th century): leader Babur
    • Babur made use of an expanding military armed with gunpowder cannons/guns to extend the geographic reach of the empire
    • Babur’s grandson, Akbar expanded it even more → tolerant of religious beliefs + masterful administrator → Mughal became the most prosperous empire of the 16th century
  • Qing Dynasty:
    • CONTEXT: With the decline of Mongol rule in China → new dynasty: Ming Dynasty (14th century, ethnically han: means it’s a true Chinese dynasty)
      • Established peace and order + expanded their borders with gunpowder
      • Around the 1500s, they declined due to internal divisions and external wars → rise of the Qing
    • Qing was established by the Manchu(not ethnically han) people (took advantage of the Ming decline to set up their own dynasty)
    • Qing rulers did a 40 year campaign to claim all former Ming territory (Taiwan/Mongolia)
• Rivalries Between States
  • Safavid-Mughal (17th century): Religious rivalry (Shi’a vs Sunni)
  • Songhai-Moroccan: Songhai became rich due to Trans-Saharan trade → weakened due to internal conflicts → Moroccan kingdom invaded Songhai and beat them with their gunpowder weapons (Songhai had none)

Land-Based Empires: ADMINISTRATION

note: Bureaucracy - body of govt officials responsible for administering the empire and ensures the laws are being kept

• Legitimizing & Consolidating Power
  • Legitimize power - methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects WHO is in charge
  • Consolidate power - measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for themselves
• #1) Bureaucracies & Militaries
  • #1 Large Imperial bureaucracies (expanding empires = larger bureaucracies)
    • Devshirme System (ottomans): System where ottomans staffed their bureaucracy with high-trained individuals (enslaved) → registering enslaved christian boys
  • #2 Military Expansion (creating elite military professionals)
    • Devshirme system → elite soldiers (Janissaries): formed the core of the Ottoman army which was increasing in size
• #2) Religion, Art, and Architecture
  • Religion & Power
    • Rule by divine right of kings (Europe): king ruled with the approval of Jesus (to oppose the king, you would oppose God too)
    • Human Sacrifice (Aztecs): Mexica believed the Sun god lost energy, to gain power back for the Sun → human sacrifice (held public sacrifices to let everyone know who was in charge)
  • Art
    • Qing Dynasty: Emperor Kangxi had imperial portraits of himself around the city → to prove to the Chinese that he was the ruler (depicted according to traditional Confucian values → appealed to Chinese subjects)
  • Architecture
    • Palace of Versailles (built for Louis XIV, 14th century) → huge palace, made everyone know who was in charge
      • Louis consolidated power → forced French nobility to live at the palace part-time (he was able to remove power from them)
    • Inca Sun temple (Kusco): since rulers were associated with the gods → buildings like this serve to legitimize their power
• Financing Imperial Expansion
  • #1 Zamindar system (Mughal): Due to Mughal rulers being Muslim while the Indian population was Hindu led to suspicion toward their Muslim rulers → implemented Zamindars (local land owners) to collect taxes
  • #2 Tax Farming (Ottoman): The right to tax subjects of the empire went to the highest bidder → whoever got the right, needed to collect taxes + collected more taxes than were legally required → Provided the Ottomans a good source of income
    • Tax farmers wren’t members of the official bureaucracy → ottomans didn’t have to pay them, they paid themselves by fleecing the people

Land-Based Empires: BELIEF SYSTEMS

• Christianity in Europe
  • CONTEXT: Two Branches of Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Church + Roman Catholic Church (Great Schism of 1054)
  • By 1500, the Catholic Church had a lot of power in Europe (Pope Leo X) → built massive structures
    • To fund these buildings, the church began the sale of INDULGENCES (promised the forgiveness of sins) + Simony: high church positions up for sale → people’s confidence in the church was dying
    • Martin Luther (catholic monk): wrote the 95 Theses (series of complains abt the corrupt practices) + nailed them to the church → Church excommunicated him + Luther’s work split the church AGAIN (Protestant Reformation)
      • Luther’s work was published using the Printing Press
    • Church decided that the complains might be right → Catholic/Counter Reformation → church gathered at a series of meetings (Council of Trent) + tossed out many corrupt practices + Catholics reaffirmed their ancient doctrines
    • EFFECT: rulers across europe remained Catholic or imposed Protestantism upon the people they ruled → led to a series of religious wars in Europe
• Islam in the MIddle East
  • Safavids (Shia) vs Ottomans (sunni): Ottomans got the upper hand → note: their political rivalry intensified the split between Shia and the sunni
• Change in South Asia
  • Bhakti + Sufism = exchange and blending
  • Hindu + Islam = Sikhism
    • Demonstrates continuity because it held onto significant doctrines of both belief systems
    • Demonstrates change because many distinctions were discarded (caste system/gender hierarchies)

UNIT 4: TRANSOCEANIC INTERACTIONS (1450-1750)

Technology innovations and Causes of European Exploration

TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS

Sea-based empires were in Europe

• Adopted Technologies
  • #1 Magnetic Compass (developed in China + give direction)
  • #2 Astrolabe (determined latitude and longitude by measuring stars)
  • #3 Lateen Sail (triangular-shaped sail + developed by Arab merchants + takes wind on either side)
  • #4 Astronomical charts (diagrams of stars & constellations)
  • REMEMBER THIS: europeans didn’t invent these, they ADOPTED them from other cultures → got tech from trade routes
• European Innovations
  • Shipbuilding
    • Caravel (Portugal): more nimble and navigable on water + had cannons
    • Carrack (Portugal): Portugal decided world domination = trade → created these HUGE ships to carry guns
    • Fluyt (Dutch): Dethroned the Portuguese in the Indian Oc. Trade (designed for trade + big cargo hold + small crews + cheap to build)
      • Dutch had tools to build them → cut the cost of production in half → mid 17th century: Fluyt were responsible for about half of all europe’s shipping weight (tonnage)

CAUSES FOR EUROPEAN EXPLORATION

• State Sponsored Exploration
  • New era of sea-based empire building was state-sponsored → result of changes in the distribution of power in European states (population grew + monarchs consolidated power)
    • Monarchs built up their militaries + used gunpowder weapons + created ways to tax their people
  • Huge Motivator for states sponsoring maritime exploration → increasing desire of Asian/Southeast Asian SPICES (pepper)
    • Why? Pepper came from trade routes and were expensive in Europe → Europeans tried to find ways to trade with states → began looking to the sea
• Portugal’s Trading Post Empire
  • Had no way to expand except by the sea
  • Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the first attempts to find an all water route into the Indian Oc. network
  • Portugal’s Motivations
    • #1 Technology: caravel/carrack
    • #2 Economics: Trans-saharan Gold + Spices
    • #3 Religion: desire to spread christianity → Prince Henry desired to find a Eastern Christian Monarch (Prester John): he thought it was good to connect states in the west and east
  • Set up trading posts around Africa and the Indian Oc. → Vasco de Gama sailed established more trading posts down south (found Calicut and found out the riches were greater → trading posts established around region)
• Spain’s sea-based empire
  • While the Portugal was busy, Isabelle and Ferdinand wanted what Portugal has
  • Christopher Columbus → had an idea to sail westward to access the Spice Islands quicker (Isabelle/Ferdinand agreed)
    • 1492: Him and his crew reached the Caribbean islands (thought they were the Spice Islands) → Europe discovered two huge continents (North/South America)
  • After this discovery, Spain sponsored other explorers
    • Ferdinand Magellan: sailed to the actual east indies
    • Spanish sent fleets to the Americas to colonize and conquer → opened up the transatlantic trade
• Other States’ Empires
  • Causes for Exploration
    • Political Rivalry
    • Envy
    • Desire for wealth
    • Need for alternative routes to asia
  • France
    • sought a westward passage to the Indian Oc. → explored N/A and got access to fur trade → Quebec was established (had a habit of dying in large #’s, mainly established presence in trading posts)
  • England
    • After Queen Elizabeth I rose to power + defeated Spain’s attempts to invade England (weakened Spain) → She supported westward exploration
      • Elizabeth commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to lead the expedition → established England’s first colony in the Americas (Virginia + Jamestown)
  • Dutch
    • 1579: gained independence from Spain + were the wealthiest state in all of Europe
    • Began competing for trading posts around Africa → dethroned the Portuguese
    • 1608: Dutch sponsored Henry Hudson to establish a Dutch presence in the new world by finding the colony of New Amsterdam

COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

Definition: transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres

• Causes
  • Columbus created contact between the New World and the Old World
• Effects: Diseases
  • Europeans brought disease vectors (rats/mosquitos) to the Americas
    • Malaria: carried by mosquitos, introduced by enslaved Africans who were transported for plantation work → killed a lot of indigenous americans
    • Measles: highly contagious and spread rapidly in densely populated areas → killed millions
    • Smallpox: spread from Mexico to South America → Great Dying
• Effects: Plants & Food
  • Europeans brought: Bananas & Sugar (olives, wheat, grapes) → indigenous adopted some of these new foods (diversified their diets + increased their life span)
    • Americas transferred potatoes, maize, manioc (better diets/health → population grew)
  • On European control plantations in the Americas they grew Cash Crops → method of agriculture where food is grown for export
    • plantations worked by coerced laborers (didn’t have a choice)
    • EX of Cash Cropping: Growth of Sugar Cane in Caribbean colonies → enslaved africans did the labor + sugar was exported to markets in Europe/Middle east
  • Africa brought new foods to the Americas: okra and rice
• Effects: Animals

(Animals introduced to the Americas from Europe had the biggest effect)

• • Europeans brought pigs, sheep, cattle → created the foundation for future ranching economies
    • new animals brought environmental consequences that put strains on farmers (sheep ate grass → erosion)
  • HORSES: changed the society of indigenous peoples by allowing them to hunt large herds of Buffalo (staple food item for them)

Maritime Empires established + Economics of Empire Building

MARITIME EMPIRES ESTABLISHED

• European Trade Ascendancy
  • Motives for Imperialism: Gold, God, Glory
    • To enrich themselves
    • To spread Christianity
    • Be the greatest state
  • Portuguese: established first trading post empire → Portuguese participated in Indian Oc. trade by owning/controlling it by force
  • Spanish (Spain): set up their operations in the Philippines + established colonies instead of trading posts (maintained through tribute systems, taxation, coerced labor)
  • Dutch: used same methods as Portuguese to establish control over the trade route + Dutch did the same thing what the british did (colonial rule) in Indonesia
  • British: Lacked military power to take over the Mughal Empire → established trading posts along their coasts
    • near the end of the 18th century, British transformed trading posts into colonial rule in India
• Continuity in Trade: Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of Europeans continued to use it → increased profits for europeans and merchants
  • Merchants like Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire continued to use this trade route even with the Europeans wanting to dominate it → increased power/wealth
• Asian resistance
  • Japan: early 1600s Japan united under a Shogun from the Tokugawa Clan → thought european trade was a threat (europeans wanted to convert ppl to christianity)
    • many japanese converted to christianity → Shogun expelled all christian missionaries + suppressed the faith with violence
  • Ming China: Many motives for the voyages of Zheng He, the most important was to create a situation where most of maritime trade in the Indian Oc. was processed through the Chinese state (didn’t work, isolationist trade policies)
    • Portuguese came to China (early 1500s) traded only with bribery → Ming officials expelled them (isolation grew)
• Expansion of African States
  • Asante Empire: Key trading partner with the Portuguese (later the British) providing Gold, Ivory, enslaved laborers → made them rich and expanded/consolidated their military and power
    • Used their power to repel against the British from colonizing the region
  • Kingdom of the Kongo: Made strong diplomatic ties to Portuguese traders who desired for gold, ivory, and enslaved laborers → to keep this economic relationship, the King converted to Christianity (relationship deteriorated) BUT their connection enriched African states
• Economic and Labor Systems
  • colonial economies were structured around Agriculture
  • Existing Labor Systems
    • Spanish used the Mit’a system → for their silver mining operations
  • New labor systems
    • Chattel (property) Slavery: Laborers were owned like a piece of property (race-based + slavery became hereditary)
    • Indentured Servitude: Laborer would sign a contract that would bound them to a particular work for a period of time → poorer europeans used this to pay their passage to the colonies, after contract was done they can live their lives
    • Encomienda System: Spanish used this to get indigenous Americans to work for colonial authorities → indigenous ppl forced to provide labor for the Spanish in exchange for food/protection (similar to Feudalism)
    • Hacienda System: Haciendas were large agricultural estates owned by elite Spaniards → laborers forced to work the fields + crops exported/sold
      • DIFFERENCE: Encomienda focused on controlling the population → Hacienda focused on the economics of food
• Development of Slavery
  • Continuity:
    • African slave Trade → Cultural Assimilation
    • Domestic Work (african slaves became servants w/ a high demand for enslaved women)
    • Slaves held Power (could hold military/political positions)
      • These continued during the rise and establishment of maritime empires
  • Change:
    • Agricultural Work (male slaves purchased → impacted demographics of African states)
    • transatlantic trade larger
    • Racial Prejudice (In the Americas, slavery became identified with blackness which justified the brutality of slavery)
      • Being black = less human, being less human = plantation owners could treat workers with violence

ECONOMICS OF EMPIRE BUILDING (how did maritime empires maintained/developed)

• Economic Strategies
  • Mercantilism: system that emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade (merchants wanted exports > imports)
    • In short: mercantilist economies saw the world’s wealth like a pie and the goal was to get the biggest piece of pie (world’s wealth)
    • Powerful motivation for empires → once a colony was established, it created a closed market to buy exports from the parent country (more colonies = more mineral wealth)
  • Joint-Stock Companies: limited liability business (often chartered by the state) that was funded by a group of investors
    • Liability: investors could only lose the money they invested in the business
    • Chartered by the state: govt approved this business + granted it trade monopolies in regions
    • Funded by a group: Big innovation how businesses were funded as they were PRIVATELY funded, not state-funded
    • 
    • EX: Dutch East India Company - 1602, a dutch state granted the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Oc.
      • company’s investors became rich
      • dutch imperial govt expanded its power/influence throughout the Indian Oc.
    • French and British made their own companies for trade and expansion → growing rivalry around the “pie” (Anglo Dutch war)

note: Spain + Portugal were funding their trade and imperial ventures through the state → influence on the world was waning

• Trade Networks: Change and Continuity
  • Change
    • Atlantic system: movement of goods between eastern/western hemispheres
    • Importance of Sugar: colonial plantations specialized in the growth of sugar cane
    • Silver was King (EX: in Bolivia, spanish exploited a silver mine in potosi + other colonies → sent back to Spain)
      • Effects of Silver:
        • Satisfied Chinese Demand for silver: further the commercialization of their economy
        • Increased Profits: The goods silver purchased in Asian markets were traded across the atlantic system → more profits
    • Coerced Labor (systems)
      • Forced indigenous labor
      • indentured servitude
      • enslaved africans
    • ALL established by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by state to joint stock companies (Atlantic system turned European states into political/geographical equivalent of hogging that “pie”)
  • Continuity
    • Afro-Eurasian markets thrived: increased their reach and flourished (even though europeans were increasingly dominating the Indian Oc. network, Merchants continued to trade + benefited from the increased merchant traffic)
    • Asian Land Routes: overland routes like the silk roads almost controlled by asian land-based powers (Ming China/Qing Dynasty)
    • Peasant and Artisan labor: intensified
      • Peasants were farmers but w/ the increase demand for goods → they produced more goods for distant markets
        • EX: demand for cotton increased throughout Europe → peasant farmers increased their production for export + increase their standard of living
      • Artisans were skilled laborers who made goods by hand → increased their production
• Social Effects (of the African slave trade)
  • Gender Imbalance: majority of slaves purchased were men
  • Changed family structures: african states were being depleted of their male population → increase in polygyny (practice of men marrying more than one women)
  • Cultural synthesis: Enslaved africans came from states/cultures → in the americas they adopted Creole(mixed) languages
    • Creole languages developed as a synthesis of european and african languages
• Changing Belief Systems
  • Spanish/Portuguese Christianity in South America: sent Catholic missionaries to their colonies to spread Christianity among indigenous people
    • european language and culture was introduced/imposed upon indigenous ppl + use of printing press had these ideas spread rapidly
      • (outcome: some indigenous adopted christianity, some practiced their own beliefs → violent retaliation from colonial authorities)
    • Las Casas’s Defense of Indigenous Americans: protected indigenous americans from the abuse of colonial authorities → led to outlawing the enslavement of indigenous ppl + limiting the forms of coerced labor they could participate in
      • even though widespread conversion was their aim = slow progress → syncretic blending of Christianity + native belief systems
      • note: enslaved africans brought their native belief systems with them like islam and more blending happened

Challenges to STATE Power

• Local Resistances
  • Fronde (france): resistance crushed and monarch increased in power
    • CONTEXT: Louis XIV was a poster boy for absolutism (monarchs consolidated all power) → increased taxation + nobility been under threat from the growing power of the monarchy → Fronde
  • Queen Ana Nzing’s resistance: She ruled over kingdoms of Vango and Matamba, grew sus of Portuguese merchants → allied with the Dutch to fight back the armies (successful)
  • Pueblo Revolt (North America): Pueblo forced into coerced labor for spanish projects + suffered from diseases → population suffered
    • Rebelled against the spanish killing many missionaries and leaders → temporarily eject the Spanish, but spanish came back to regain control
  • SUMMARY: Due to the efforts of European states to expand their empires and solidate power under themselves, the many groups suffered the effects of that expansion resisted, sometimes success/unsuccessful
• Resistance from the Enslaved
  • Maroon societies (caribbean/brazil): free blacks → with harsh conditions enslaved africans ran away + joined free blacks (maroons)
    • Maroon communities served as an endless attraction for their workers to abandon the fields and flee
    • EX: In Jamaica, British colonial authorities tried to crush these communities, but the maroon fought back → colonial militia failed to wipe them out due to them living in mountains/thick forests
    • 1738: Treaty was signed that recognized the freedom of the maroons
  • British colonies (north america) aka Stono rebellion of 1739: in south cal it was a major agricultural operation that specialized in the export of rice/indigo → Britain sent enslaved africans there until the majority of people there were enslaved
    • 1739: enslaved ppl stormed the local armory and traveled to kill their enslavers but local militia crushed this rebellion → event struck fear into slaveholding-colonies

Changing SOCIAL Hierarchies

• Responses to Ethnic Diversity (expulsion-tolerance)
  • Jews in Spain/Portugal: spain/portugal expelled all jews from their kingdom due to fear of their influence on converted Jews
    • CONTEXT: 1492 - Spain completed the Reconquista (effort to rid the Iberian Peninsula of Muslim rule) → re established christianity as the official religion of the region
  • Jews in the Ottoman Empire (tolerant): Mehmed II opened empire to displaced Jews, some rose in the court and some contributed to economic/cultural environment
    • “relative” tolerance doesn’t mean Jews enjoyed full equality under ottoman rule → required to pay the Gia (tax that non-muslims pay, only permitted to live in parts of urban areas)
  • Qing Dynasty (expulsion): Manchu rulers adopted parts of traditional chinese culture (confucian) → made a division between ethnic manchu and Han ppl
    • EX: Manchu retain the civil service exam to staff their bureaucracy BUT all high positions reserved for Manchus → Han ppl barred from those positions + Han men required to wear their hair in braided queues
  • Mughal Empire (tolerant): Funded the construction of churches and temples and Mosques + no tax (the Gia)
• Rise of New Elites
  • note: none of the spanish nobility migrated to the new world → conquistadors in Spain’s empire in the new world imposed a new hierarchy
    • Casta System (organized society by race/heredity)
      • Peninsulares: Born on the Iberian Peninsula + Creoles: European/Born in the new world
      • Castas (remaining members of society): Mestizos - European/indigenous, Mulattoes - European/African, bottom: indigenous and africans
      • REMEMBER - prior to the imposing of the casta system, native ppl were part of a wide variety of cultural groups
• Struggles of Existing Elites
  • Russian Boyars: made up the aristocratic landowning class in Russia + exerted great power in the administration
    • Peter the Great: Removed power from the boyars and consolidated it under himself → boyars protested and Peter abolished the rank of Boyar in Russia (required anyone who wanted employment in the bureaucracy to serve the state directly)
  • Ottoman Timars: Land grants made by the Ottomans to an aristocratic class in payment for service to the govt (military service)
    • Aristocrats who controlled the timars grew rich/powerful through taxation of the people living on the land
    • 16th century - Ottoman sultans took over the timars and converted them to tax farms → directed revenue directly to the state (elites found themselves weak)

UNIT 5: REVOLUTIONS (1750-1900)

The Enlightenment

Definition: An intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding (rationalism/empiricist approaches) to the natural world and human relationships

1. Rationalism: reason > emotion/external authority is the most reliable source of true knowledge
2. Empiricism: true knowledge is gained through the sense (mainly through rigorous experimentation
   • These ways of thinking developed during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th/17th centuries in Europe -> scientists tossed religious authority away and used reason to see how the world really worked 
   • They experienced scientific breakthroughs + understood the complexities of the Cosmos, the internal workings of the human body, etc. 
3. The Enlightenment is an extension of the same scientific/rationalistic thinking BUT enlightenment philosophers applied those methods to the study of human society

note: Crucial components to the Enlightenment: questioning and reexamination of the role of religion in public life -> Problem with Christianity from philosophers: it was a revealed religion (words by god couldn’t be questioned) 

• • Significant shift of authority: from the scientific revolution from outside a person to inside a person

NEW BELIEF SYSTEMS 

1. Deism (popular among enlightenment thinkers) -> believed that a God created everything and then left everything until it runs out
2. Atheism (rejection of religious belief/divine beings)

• NEW ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS

(Political Ideas)

1. Individualism: most basic element of society was the individual human and not collective groups
2. Natural Rights: humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by govts/entities 
   1. (John Locke - agreed that human beings were born with natural rights aka life, liberty, and property -> rights given by God meaning rights cannot be taken away by a monarch) 
3. Social contract: societies given natural rights must have govts of their own will to protect their natural rights -> IF that govt becomes a tyrannical turd then the people have the right to overthrow the govt

EFFECTS OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS

1. Major Revolutions: American, French, Haitian, Latin American 
   1. Enlightenment emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a role in these revolutions -> revolutions created the conditions for the intensification of nationalism
   2. Nationalism: sense of commonality among people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and linked with a desire for territory
2. Expansion of suffrage (right to vote) 
   1. EX: 1776 - White males with land could only vote -> early 1800s - all white males could vote -> 1870 - black males can vote!
   2. One reason for this expansion: Liberty and equality were revered in America as part of the cultural heritage beginning with the Declaration of Independence
3. Abolition of slavery: enlightenment thinkers criticized slavery -> Britain abolished slavery in 1807 (britain was the wealthiest nation + gained wealth during the Industrial revolution by means of paid labor -> made economic sense) 
   1. Enslaved people contributed with the Great Jamaica Revolt -> played a role in Britain’s decision to abolish slavery
4. End of Serfdom: the transition from agricultural economies to industrial economies, serfs became irrelevant -> peasants revolts persuaded state leaders to end serfdom
5. Calls of Women’s Suffrage (didn’t have voting rights) 
   1. Feminist movements demanded equality of all life 
      1. EX: Olympe De Gouges created the Declaration of the rights of women and the female citizen -> criticized the French Constitution for sidlining women in the birth of post-revolutionary France
      2. In America -> women gathered at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 to call for a constitutional amendment that recognized women’s right to vote

Nationalism and Revolution

• Causes of Revolution
  • #1 Nationalism: states attempted to use nationalistic feelings to their advantage to foster a sense of unity among their people (nationalistic themes, public rituals, military service)
    • EX: Russian leaders required the russian language to be spoken to create a sense of unity
  • #2 Political Dissent: discontent with monarchist and imperial rule
    • EX: Safavid Empire tried to impose new taxes → militaristic nomadic groups rebelled → weakened the Safavids (early 18th century, outside invaders ended the Safavids)
    • EX: Wahhabi movement → to reform the corrupted form of islam endemic in the Ottoman Empire → contributed to the long decline of the Ottomans
  • #3 New Ways of Thinking: development of new ideologies and systems of govt
    • Popular Sovereignty: power to govern was in the hands of the people
    • Democracy: people have the right to vote/influence the policies of the govt
    • Liberalism: emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative govt, the protection of private property, and economic freedom
• The Atlantic Revolutions
  • American Revolution (1776)
    • STORY: British established the 13 colonies in America, since they were far from Britain they developed a culture/govt without interference from Britain → After the 7 year war, Britain had war debts and got the colonies to help them pay for war with new taxes
      • With new taxes, curtailment of freedoms, and adoption of enlightenment principles (shown in the Declaration of Independence) this Revolution began.
    • France helped America and won the war → USA was born in 1783 (victory provided a template for other nations for a successful overthrow of oppressive power)
  • French Revolution (1789)
    • French soldiers came back from war with new ideas and were sus of their King → Louis the 16th attempted to tighten his control to pay his own debts, the people rebelled and established a republic
      • Developed the Declaration of the rights of man and citizen
  • Haitian Revolution (1791): Haiti was the colonial property of France (most prosperous colony)
    • Enslaved blacks heard about the French Revolution + under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture → enslaved Haitians revolted → defeated the french + established the 2nd republic/the first black govt
  • Latin American Revolutions
    • Creole Revolution: creoles weren’t too happy abt the Peninsulares getting most of the power → 1808: Napoleon’s invasion of Spain + deposition of the Portuguese Monarch created an unstable political situation
      • Simon Bolivar appealed to colonial subjects across racial lines with enlightenment ideas (summarized in his letter from Jamaica) → after a series of wars Latin American colonies won its independence and formed Republican govts
• Other Nationalist Movements

note: nationalist movements resulted in calls for a higher degree in self-rule + national unification, not revolution

• • #1 Propaganda Movement (Philippines): Spanish colony → spanish controlled education + wealthy creoles/mestizos got high education.
    • Europe brought enlightenment ideas and Filipino students brought them home → spanish authorities knew where that thinking could lead → spanish wanted to suppress
      • Philippine Revolution broke out
  • Unification of Italy & Germany (were made up of fragmented states)
    • military leaders inspired their people to unify together under a single govt (diplomacy + military tactics = unified these regions)

Industrial Revolution: BEGAN

Definition: Process where states transitioned from agrarian economies to industrial economies (goods made by hand → goods made by machine)

note: this changed the world’s balance of political power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich

• Why Britain came First
  • #1 Proximity to waterways: had access to river/canals → enabled efficient and rapid transportation of goods to markets
  • #2 Distribution of coal and iron: Development of coal power increased efficiency in the production of iron (built bridges, machines, railroads → rapid industrialization)
  • #3 Access to Foreign Resources: Due to their establishment of maritime empires, they had access to raw materials that weren’t available in Britain
  • #4 Improved Agricultural Productivity: had plenty of food → experienced an agricultural revolution
    • Crop Rotation: fertility of the soil maintained
    • Seed Drill: seeds could be planted more efficiently → less waste + greater harvests
    • Columbian Exchange: introduced potatoes → better diets/health (increased life span spiked population)
  • #5 Rapid Urbanization: rural to urban migration
    • with new tech, ppl didn’t need to work in the fields → industrial cities grew + provided ppl jobs
  • #6 Legal Protection of Private Property
    • Britain passed laws that protected entrepreneurs → entrepreneurs felt safe to risk investment to start new businesses (contributed to rapid industrialization)
  • #7 Accumulation of Capital
    • Amount of wealth gained through the atlantic slave trade, Britain had many ppl who had extra capital (Capitalists) → with extra money they invested in the industrial businesses
• Factory System
  • Concentrated production in a single location + powered by moving water due to the Water Frame
    • In textile factories this was connected to the Spinning Jenny (operated looms that created textiles quickly)
  • Since these machines didn’t require skill, specialization of labor occurred → with machines making goods, workers were easily replaceable since their jobs didn’t require much skill

Industrial Revolution: SPREAD + TECHNOLOGIES

THE SPREAD

• The Effect of Steam power
  • Steam Engine: machine that converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy → meant that factories can be created + industrial revolution increased rapidly
    • Steamships: goods can be transported further/faster
• Shifting World Economics
  • Places who had many or all of Britain’s factors spread quickly + places who had few or none spread slowly
    • EX: Places in eastern/southern Europe lacked coal deposits, land-locked + hindered by powerful groups (nobility, didn’t want their power to be challenged)
    • The world in the 18th-19th century was being divided into industrialized nations (Britain, France, US → claimed a growing portion of the world’s global manufacturing output)
    • AND non-industrialized nations (previous powerhouses of the world saw their share of production for the world decline)
      • EX of non-industrialized nations: decline of textile production in India + Egypt → with the rise of cheaper produced textiles in Britain they shared a decline
        • Another EX: Decline of ship building in India and Southeast Asia → with britain’s colonial takeover, the ship building sector was controlled by Britain who forced manufacturers to build ships for the Royal Navy
• Industrialized Nations Compared
  • France: Once Napoleon was gone, they adopted industrial tech BUT their industrialization was slow
    • Why? - France lacked the coal/iron deposits
    • (Napoleon laid the foundations for French industrialization by building the Quenton Canal: major waterway connecting with the iron/coal fields)
    • Soon, the govt sponsored the construction of railroads (1830s: textile factories were built → created cotton industry for France + revived their silk industry_
    • Compared the Britain, France was slow at industrializing but were spared some of the social upheavals
  • United States: (once they dealt w/ the civil war, they industrialized fast + became a major player on the global economic stage)
    • Massive territory, political stability, rapid population growth → US economy grew + led to a high standard of living for its workers than their counterparts
  • Russia: (The Tsar adopted many industrial tech: Railroads + steam engine technologies)
    • Trans-Siberian Railroad (Moscow-Pacific Oc.): Increased trade with eastern states (china) + created an interdependent market throughout Russia
      • However, with brutal conditions in workplaces led to worker uprisings → Russian Revolution of 1905
      • Unlike the US where industrialization was driven from below by workers → Russia’s industrialization was state-driven affair in response to their lacking development compared to Western Europe
  • Japan (many asian states declined in power as Western states became more powerful)
    • Japan didn’t want to submit to Western powers → created defensive industrialization Meiji Restoration: borrowed heavily from Western tech/education + became an industrial power and eventually known as the most powerful state in the region

THE TECHNOLOGIES

note: First Industrial revolution (1750-1830, Great Britain), 2nd Industrial revolution (1870-1914, USA + Russia + Japan + Europe)

• Fuels and Engines
  • Coal (1st Revolution: main engine of the first revolution was the Steam Engine (James Watt)
    • Effect of Steam Engine: machines didn’t have to be powered by water anymore + factories can be built anywhere → rapid spread of factory system
      • Powered Locomotives (transported goods to markets quick) + Steamships (increased speed) → developed coaling stations for ships to refuel
      • With the Suez canal (1869), the distance from Europe-Asia shortened → more steamships + rapid expansion of trade
  • Oil (2nd Revolution): internal combustion engine developed to harness the energy of gasoline → eventually power the automobile
• NOTE: These fuels increased the amount of energy available to humans → caused air pollution
• 2nd Industrial Revolution Technology
  • Steel: the Bessemer Process made iron more stronger and versatile + became cheaper to produce → preferred building material to build bridges, railroads + ships
  • Chemical Engineering: Made synthetic dyes for textiles (cheaper than organic dyes) + Vulcanization made RUBBER more durable
    • Rubber: used in factories as belts for machines + later used as tires for automobiles
  • Electricity (Thomas Edison): electric subways/streetcars developed and provided transit in major cities
  • Telegraph (Samuel Morris, 1840s): Able to send communication across wires to distant places with electrical signals (Morse Code) → 1870s: telegraph wire connected Britain + USA → developed the economies
• Effects of New Technology
  • Development of interior regions: with the expansion of railroads/development of the telegraph → new settlements were developed in places that were more difficult to reach
  • Increase in trade and migration: Global trade multiplied → states became closely interlined into a global economy
    • with new tech Europe’s people migrated from rural to Urban areas for jobs + with famine and political instability people migrated to the USA, Australia + South Africa

Industrial Revolution: Governments’ Role + Economic Developments

GOVERNMENTS ROLE

• Egyptian (Ottoman) Industrialization
  • CONTEXT: states that adopted industrialization, the transformation of their economics + global balance of power was shifted in their favor → since some states didn’t want to be crushed, they promoted their own state sponsored + more limited attempts at industrialization
  • Ottoman Empire was declining due to internal corruption + conflicts → had little wealth to invest in industrialization
  • Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali, Egypt took steps toward Industrialization
    • Tanzimat Reforms
      • Industrial projects (textile/weapons factories built)
      • Agriculture (govt purchased crops to be sold on world market)
      • Tariffs (taxes on imported goods + protected development of Egyptian economy)
  • HOWEVER Britain didn’t like the growing power of Egypt since crossing Egypt was the quickest way to access trade networks in Asia
    • SO when Egypt vs Ottomans war happened, Britain intervened and forced Egypt to remove tariffs/barriers to trade → British goods flooded Egypt and Egypt couldn’t continue their industrial project
• Japan Industrializes
• Factors that made Japan want to isolate
  • Western powers: dominated other asian states like china (western powers overwhelmed china → forced them into a series of unequal treaties that made China submissive to western economic interests)
  • Matthew Perry: Came to japan with a fleet of ships stacked with guns, demanded that Japan open trade w/ the USA
    • Japan initiated a defensive measure against western domination facilitated by a Japanese civil war in 1868 → overthrew the shogunate + reestablishes of an emperor by Samurai who feared western intrusion → continued Japanese Isolationism → MEIJI RESTORATION
  • Meiji Restoration
    • Culture: japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn about them then implemented it into their own state
    • Government: established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament (borrowed from germany)
    • Infrastructure: state funded building of railroads, national banking system + development of industrial factories (textiles/munitions)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS

• Slow death of Mercantilism
  • Replaced by free market economics that was market driven
    • Influence on this transition: The Wealth of Nations (Adam Smith) - criticized mercantilism, said it benefitted elite members of society. He argued with more Laissez-Faire policies (get the govt out of the economy, let ppl make their own economic decisions) + argued that if free market was applied then wealth would be more evenly distributed
      • Suppliers + Consumers would react to each other based on the laws of supply and demand (“The Invisible Hand”)
    • After 1815, western govts abandoned some of their state regulations on trade → increased trade and wealth
  • Free market Critics → became the economic system that industrial nations adopted
    • Jeremy Bentham: argued the cure for the suffering of the working class/society was not free market but govt legislation
    • Friedrich list: rejected global free market principles was a “trick” that British made to put other economies under their own domination
      • his work led to the development of Zollverein: customs union that reduced trade barriers between German states + put tariffs on imported goods
• Transnational Corporations → relied on developed practices in banking and finance

Definition: company established and controlled in one country, but also establishes large operations in many other countries

• • Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (1865, Britain): controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial ventures → keep all wealth generated by selling opium to China
  • Unilever Corporation: Joint company established by the British/Dutch that manufactured household goods (soap) + opened factories while sourcing raw materials in Colonial Holdings
• New Financial Practices
  • Stock Markets: to finance the buildings of businesses they raised funds by selling stocks(small portions of ownership in corporation), ppl could buy these stocks and when the company profited so did the stockholders
  • Limited LIability: way of organizing a business that protected the financial investment of its owners (Joint Stock Companies 2.0), owners could take risks by investing their money into a corporate venture BUT (enjoyed a certain amt of financial protection, they lose the amt of money they invested)
• Effects of Industrial Capitalism → all western industrialized nations were rich in the 1900 > 1800
  • Rising standard of living → access to goods that people enjoyed + with the rapid enrichment of industrialized societies → middle class grew
  • Manufacturing technology → made production of goods efficient + cheaper + more ppl had access to them
  • Mechanized farming → abundant harvesters that increased the variety and abundance of food available → longer lifespans

Reactions to Industrial Revolution + The Society

REACTIONS TO INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

• Call for reform (Effects of the working class)
  • note: Workers worked long hours with little pay -> called for reforms
    • Political Reform: Conservatives and liberals in Britain/France incorporated social reforms into their platforms because people who wanted reforms were voting 
    • Social Reform: working class people organized themselves into social societies providing insurance for sickness/social events
    • Educational Reform 1870-1914: (European govts passed compulsory education laws to get young children into school): High paying jobs became more technical/specialized + compulsory education prepares children for these kinds of jobs
    • Urban Reforms (urban areas became nasty bc of the growing population): Govts passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers 
• Rise of Labor Unions

Definition (labor union): a collective of workers who join together in order to protect their own interests. 

• Prior to this, labor unions were illegal so all the power was in the hands of capitalists and factory owners -> workers became mad
• Labor unions were eventually used all over the world where they bargained for higher wages, limited working hours, improved working conditions
  • Some union turned into political parties that sought to enact reforms on behalf of the working classes in the highest levels of govt
    • EX: German social democratic party -> advocated for marxist reform in germany (aimed to transform the capitalist system of private ownership of the means of production to social ownership of the means of production 

- Ideological reactions: Marxism

• Karl Marx: believed that capitalism was unstable by nature bc it created a class division in industrial societies (upper class having leisure time while the working class kept them wealthy -> would lead to violent revolution of the lower class vs upper class -> classless society) 
• Mark and Friedreich Engels published these ideas in the Communist Manifesto (approach was called Scientific Socialism); Marx argued that the societal changes from the industrial revolution had violently worsened the division between two groups of marxist classification (Bourgeoisie + Proletariat) 
• Bourgeoise: owned the means of production + Proletariat: exploited by the bourgeoisie (rose up to overthrow the bourgeoisie, marked the end of class struggle) 
• China attempts industrialization
  • Qing China (late 18th century): China snubbed British traders -> trade deficit that Britain sought to remedy by importing illegal OPIUM that had negative effects on chinese population
    • Chinese authorities cracked down on illegal trade -> OPIUM WARS 
    • In short, British easily defeated the Chinese forces since they were less modernized -> British forced chinese to sign unequal treaties that opened many trading ports against their will
      • With the defeat and by the end of the century, more industrialized nations took advantage of china’s weakness -> carved it up into various spheres of influence in which they had exclusive trading rights
    • 1860s-1870s: China response -> Self-strengthening movement: series of reforms to take steps toward industrialization while revitalizing chinese culture (full benefits were hindered by chinese conservatives who resisted the developments bc the reforms threatened the power of the landowning class -> turned into a half-hearted program of modernization (put to test in the Sino-Japanese War) 
      • China was defeated and the self-strengthening movement was a failure
• Ottoman industrialization
  • (mid 19th century): Ottomans were known as the sick man of Europe owing to its continued territorial loss to industrial countries + inability to raise tax revenue (like china, the ottomans become subservient to powerful industrial nations bc they weren’t industrialized -> ottomans decided on a defensive industrialization) 
    • Tanzimat Reforms: built textile factories, implemented western style law codes/courts, expansive education systems (all were more divorced from the islamic character of the empire) 
      • The reforms led to a new group seeking widespread political change called the Young Ottomans: desired a european style parliament + a constitutional govt that would limit the power of absolutist sultans -> 1878: sultan accepted a constitution/a parliament 
      • Ottoman reforms were more powerful than China’s BUT not enough that the empire couldn’t fall apart by the 20th century 

THE SOCIETY

• New social classes
  • Industrial working class (workers/miners): rural people who would move to urban areas to look for work -> prior to the industrial revolution most workers possess a skill that their work required
    • EX: farmers were taught how to plow fields and tend to livestock, NOW they did unskilled work since the machines did everything 
    • BENEFITS: wages were higher than the rural places they came from
    • COSTS: dangerous conditions, crowded living conditions in tenements, spread of disease, lots of work
  • Middle class (benefitted the most, includes white collar workers like factory owners/managers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers): Could afford products that improved their life and some in the UPPER middle class could buy their way into aristocracy
  • Industrialists: at the top of the social hierarchy, gained wealth by owning industrial corporations that led them to become powerful than the traditional aristocracy 
• Women and industrialization
  • Working class women: worked jobs in factories since their husbands wages were not sufficient to sustain a family (if they were married) 
  • Middle class women: they did not work bc the husbands earned the money (homemakers -> create a good environment for the husband and children) 
• Challenges in industrialization

note: Rapid pace of industrialization meant that industrial cities grew too quick for their infrastructure to keep up

• Industrial problems
  • Pollution: coal smoke from factories created a toxic fog + water polluted too
  • Housing shortages: More ppl in cities than there were places for them to live in tenements (some families lived in apartments together, sanitation was non-existent) -> created a rapid spread of disease (typhoid and cholera), killed many in the working class
  • Increased crime: poor/working class ppl were in urban areas -> rise in thefts to survive + violent crime, associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption

UNIT 6: CONSEQUENCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION (1750-1900)

Imperialism + State Expansion

IMPERALISM

• New Imperialism: Context
  • Several western european states built maritime empires (sea-based) + dominated the Indian Oc. Trade and colonized the Americas
  • God, Gold, Glory were still motivating factors but 4 new ideologies rose during this period
• Ideology #1: Nationalism
  • Prior to this period people saw themselves as subjects of a sovereign like a king → with the spread of enlightenment ideas/industrialization, people’s loyalties became linked to their own people (their nation)
    • German and Italian unification were the results of nationalistic desires of people who wanted to live in a consolidated state of their own
  • As nationalism took hold of many states that threw a lot of fuel onto Imperial ventures (why?) → nationalism can be good/bad (unite people OR think that a particular nation is the best), SO this led imperial states into a rivalry to claim large empires
• Ideology #2 Scientific Racism
  • Definition: The idea that humans can be hierarchically ranked in distinct biological classes based on race
  • Prior to this period, Europeans divided the world into US and THEM due to religion (US: Christians, THEM: Non-christians)
    • Scientific Racism took this division to another level → attempted to classify humanity according to race (US: White, THEM: Non-White)
  • Phrenology: study of the shape/size of human skulls, decided that bc whites had larger heads than other races proved the superiority of whites
• Ideology #3: Social Darwinism
  • Created by Charles Darwin: argued that life forms developed over a long period of time through Natural Selection → emphasized “survival of the fittest”
  • Social Darwinists decided that western industrial societies proved their ways are best suited to live
• Ideology #4: Civilizing Mission
  • Definition: A sense of duty western (industrial) societies possessed to bring the glories of their civilization to “lower” societies
    • Send Christian missionaries: To colonized lands to convert ppl to Christianity
    • Reorganization of colonial govts into western models
    • Impose western-style education: suppressed indigenous language/culture

STATE EXPANSION

• Setting the Stage (context)
  • Historical Developments
    • #1 Shifting Geographical Focus: expansion was focused on the Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia
    • #2 Change in imperial states: Spain & Portugal (declining) + Britain, France, Dutch (cont.) + Germany, Italy, Belgium, USA, Japan (new)
• Method #1 Private to State Control
  • Belgium Congo in Africa: Private colony held by King Leopold II → Leopold LIED being a “humanitarian”, intending to convert the indigenous to Christianity + bring them western-styles (cover up for his exploitation of the colony for raw materials: rubber)
    • All this led to public outrage BUT Belgium took Congo over
  • Other examples: Dutch takeover in Indonesia from the Dutch East India Company + British govt take over India from the British East India Company
• Method #2 Diplomacy & Warfare in Africa
  • Diplomacy (definition): act of making political agreements by means of dialogue/negotiation, NOT warfare
    • Berlin Conference (1884-1885): Due to European powers already to claim some parts of Africa a competition for Africa rose (Scramble for Africa, FUELED Imperialism)
      • Otto Von Bismarck called the european imperial powers to the conference → negotiated until Africa was divided up into European Colonial Holdings
      • No african leaders allowed in this conference → drawing borders in African that divided previous united ethnic groups that made rival ethnic groups
  • Warfare
    • French in Algeria: France was in debt to Algeria SO they sent a diplomat to Algeria to negotiate more time for payments → French diplomat gets disrespected, so France sent troops to Algeria to take over + parts of North Africa
      • Despite resistance from Muslim rulers in Algeria, the French won and expanded their power into Africa
• Method #3 Settler Colonies
  • Definition: A colony which an imperial power claims an already inhabited territory and sends its own people to set up an outpost of their own society
    • British established settler colonies in Australia/New Zealand → British settlers came in to populate these colonies establishing a neo-european society + introducing diseases (Aborigines/Maouri)
• Method #4 Conquering Neighboring Territories
  • #1 United States: with the Louisiana Purchase 1803 + wars with Mexico/Spain 19th century → Desire for westward expansion (Manifest Destiny), calling from God to possess all the territory from the Atlantic to Pacific (displaced indigenous)
  • #2 Russia: After Russia’s loss in the Crimean War, Pan-slavism spread among the russian elite → united all slavic ppl under russian authority (including all who lived under ottoman/austrian rule)
    • With Pan-Slavism + desire to achieve power → led to campaigns to claim neighboring territory
  • #3 Japan: With their industrialization during the Meiji Restoration, Japan had lots of railroads + modernized its military → authorities started building an empire + expanded its sphere of influence over Korea, Manchuria, etc

Indigenous Responses

• Causes of Resistance
  • #1 Increasing question about political authority: Once Europeans used their scientific methods to put whites as the superior race, some believed they had a duty to help the “child races” that they were colonizing
    • many imperial powers introduced western style education to ppl under their imperial thumb
    • Significant influence on western education: Enlightenment thought (popular sovereignty, social contract) → ideas caused the educated to question the legitimacy of imperial power
  • #2 Growing sense of nationalism: when imperial powers imposed their will on the colonized ppl, it sparked a sense of nationalism within them
• Direct Resistance
  • Yaa AsanteWaa War (War of the Golden Stool) in Africa: Britain was greedy to get their hands on more territory to expand their Gold coast Colony + made attempts to conquer the Asante Kingdom to access the rich deposits of gold in their territory
    • Assante had the Golden Stool that determined who is in power, British planned to get someone to sit on the stool so the Assante would know who’s in charge → Yaa AsanteWaa led her ppl against the British (British won due to their weaponry)
• Creation of New states: The US rebelled against the British and won independence
  • Cherokee nation: responded to the takeover of their nation by assimilating to American culture → Indian Removal Act: forced the indigenous to walk the Trail of Tears to move into Oklahoma
    • Cherokee established a new state with a semi-autonomous govt , judicial system, etc → westward expansion of americans led to the incorporation of Oklahoma territory into the new state of Oklahoma + the marginalization of Cherokee Authorities
• Religious Rebellions
  • Xhosa Cattle Killing movement: British claimed the Xhosa territory → Xhosa people killed all of their cattle/crops in hopes the British would go away SO many died from starvation + British claimed their territory

Global Economic Development

GLOBAL ECONOMIC CHANGES

• Development of export economies
  • Export economies: economies focused on the export of raw materials or goods for distant markets
    • Need for raw materials to make manufactured goods; cooper, cotton, gold, rubber, diamond → imperial powers transferred colonial economies to export economies
    • Prior to this development, there were many subsistence farming
      • (farmers grew foods to survive → imperial powers transformed colonial economies to serve their own interest like producing crops or extract natural resources)
• Causes of economic development
  • #1 Imperial powers needed raw materials for industrial factories:
    • EX: colonies of egypt and india were dependent on exporting cotton to britain + extraction of Palm Oil (lubricant for factory machines) in west africa
      • palm oil plantations created in west africa
    • EX #2: Guano (poop) extraction: Guano made a good fertilizer for industrial crop operations
  • #1 Need to supply food to growing urban centers: colonial economies reorganized by shifting to cash crop cultivation (sugar, coffee, meat)
    • note: major effect of industrialization → urbanization: more ppl to feed, had to import food from elsewhere
• Effects of Economic Developments
  • #1 Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods:
    • EX: Britain’s colonial holdings doubled, wanted to integrate colonies into a network of trade (they provided a closed market) → profits gained from the export of natural resources/mineral extraction went to purchasing manufactured goods exported by imperial states
  • #2 Growing economic dependence of colonial people on their imperial powers:
    • REMEMBER: the reorganization of colonial economy served only the interest of the colonizing overlords NOT the indigenous ppl → when imperial states organized colonial economies for their own benefit meant that the colonial ppl became more dependent on them

ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM

• Economic Imperialism
  • Definition: act of one state extending control over another state by economic means
  • EX #1 OPIUM WARS: Chinese restricted Britain to one trading port, caused problems for Britain (trade imbalance) → British exported Opium to China to get their ppl hooked, Chinese authorities banned this (meaning no chinese silver to britain) → FIRST OPIUM WAR
    • FIRST OPIUM WAR: British won and forced China to sign the Treaty of Nanjing: opens new trading ports to the British
      • Qing dynasty began to weaken due to the Taiping Rebellion: religious movement among the ethnic Hanns to get rid of the Manchu rulers, successful → BUT Qing military crushed the rebellion → SECOND OPIUM WAR
    • SECOND OPIUM WAR: French joined the British the defeat the Chinese → more unequal treaties/opening of trading ports (china was dominated economically by western powers)
  • EX #2: Port of Buenos Aires: British invested heavily in Argentina to improve its infrastructure → British were extract and export raw materials from argentina
    • Port of Buenos Aires created that was funded by british firms + located close to their factories → increased exports to Britain + dependent on british investment
• Trade in Commodities
  • Commodity definition: any good that can be bought/sold on the market
  • Commodity trade: Cotton (india/egypt, exported to Britain, dependant on external demand) + Palm oil (sub-saharan africa)
  • The Trend: Shape the world economy to give imperial powers an economic advantage to the damage of the colonial populations

Causes and Effects of Migration

CAUSES

• Migration: Environmental causes
  • CONTEXT: the world was shaped by industrialization → more the world industrialized the more people migrated
  • #1 Demographic change (population boom): EX - population of europe grew with new diets/medicine + ppl with no jobs migrated to cities
  • #2 Famine: EX - Irish potato famine: potato was a staple food of the Irish, a blight struck their potato crops → widespread famine + many died so ppl migrated
• Migration: Technological Causes
  • Transportation innovations: railroads + steamships (cheap) facilitated waves of migrations → massive growth in cities (urbanization)
    • Many migrants left home and never returned, some returned home (EX: Lebanese Diaspora - Lebanese merchants migrated to escape the ottoman empire)
• Migration: Economic causes
  • Migration for work
    • Voluntary migration: relocated elsewhere based on their own decisions
    • Coerced & Semi-Coerced Labor
      • #1 Atlantic slave trade was still booming
      • #2 Convict Labor (EX: British/french established Penal colonies sent convicts to do labor in colonial holdings) + (slavery would be abolished BUT industrialized states needed cheap labor to keep them on top of the world economic’’ keep)
      • #3 Indentured servitude: increase in poverty → British govt facilitated the migration of indentured indians to parts of their empire + operated mines where they used Cinese indentured servants

EFFECTS

• Effect #1: Gender imbalance
  • men sought jobs in urban centers → women took on male roles (EX: areas where subsistence farming was the norm, men were gone so the women took on their duties)
  • Family structures began to change in those places: (EX: South africa where men were absent, households were led by women + women able to sell food like cassava on the market → gained financial independence)
• EFfect #2: Ethnic enclaves
  • #1 outpost: provided a small outpost of the migrants culture in the society where they spoke their language, religion, and ate foods from their home (EX: Indians who migrated were both hindu and muslim + practiced religions together in their ethnic enclave)
  • #2 Cultural diffusion: presence of these communities contributed to cultural diffusion of their home cultures into their societies (EX: Irish enclaves were in the US, growing of Irish in the USA led to the growth of Catholicism)
• Effect #3 Nativism
  • Definition; a policy of protecting the interests of native born people over against the interest of immigrant s
    • rooted in ethnic and racial prejudice or a fear of cultural difference (EX: irish in the US were deemed as a lower race and became marginalized)
    • Government Policies: Chinese exclusion act - banned chinese immigration to the US + White Australia POlicy - british govt almost cut off the flow of asian immigrants to Australia

UNIT 7

7.1 Notes Heimler

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• Many of the maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new states
• ¨Sick Man Of Europe¨ to ¨Dead Man of Europe¨
• Tanzimat Reform→ Attempting defensive industrialization program
• Young Ottomans→ A group of youthful Ottomans that had been educated in Western ideas and called for liberal political reforms
  • The sultan agreed to some of the demands and created a parliament and a constitution
    • After Russia threatened them with war, the sultan went back to being a dictator
  • Nationalism led them to envision the Ottomans as Turkic with the exclusion of the rest of the minor ethnic groups within the empire
  • Ended up getting rid of the sultan later on
  • Ottoman Reforms
    • Secularization of schools and law codes
    • Establishment of political elections
    • Imposition of Turkic language
    • The implementation of these nationalistic policies alienated other minorities which resulted in those groups experiencing waves of nationalism which further fractured the empire

The collapse of the Russian Empire

• The Russian Revolution
  • Made some efforts toward industrialization under the heavy hand of the Zar Alexander the Second
  • Middle Class → Created by industrialization began to resent the authoritarian policies and demanded representation within the government decisions
    • Later on, suffered from state-sponsored industrialization which led to the Russian Revolution
  • Nicholas provided demands such as a constitution, labor unions, and labor parties but he would later on ignore those reforms and continue his dictatorship
    • This caused tensions to rise once again, and WWI made it even worse
  • WWI continued the difficulties of industrialization then led to the Russian Revolution of 1917 which was led by Marxist visionary Vladimir Lenin who was the leader of a political party known as the Bolsheviks
  • The revolution was successful = the Bolsheviks seized power and established a communist state and the Soviet Union

Collapse of Qing China

• Qing Problems
  • Taiping Rebellion
    • shut down by Qing Authorities
    • Cost millions of lives and money
  • Loss of Opium Wars
  • Loss of Sino-Japanese War
    • China was no match for industrialized Japan
• Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists
  • Boxer Rebellion→ Against Qing authorities whom they viewed as foreigners
    • Had to rely on Western Powers for financial support
      • Later on, they imposed demands on a weakened China for their benefits
  • Sun Yat Sin→ A Western educator who resulted in the abdication of the Ching emperor
• China emerges as a communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong

The Mexican Revolution

• Porfirio Diaz→ angered every social class in Mexico with his policies and banded together to get rid of him
• A decade of civil war ensured peasant armies led by Poncho Villa and Emiliano Zapata but both unsuccessful
• Mexico emerged as a republic with a constitution that had reforms that prevented the acts that led to the Revolution to begin with.

7.2 Notes Heimler

Causes of WWI

• Militarism→ The belief that states out to build up strong militaries and employ them aggressively to protect their interests
  • Due to productivity in industrial manufacturing, states were able to produce military weapons in greater quantities and faster
  • Germany→ possesses the most powerful military force in Europe due to rapid industrialization and massive build-up of military
  • France→ experienced several internal problems at the time and its military was not as strong therefore became fearful of Germany’s rapid growth in power
  • Great Britain→ Had a very powerful military, but its strong sense of militarism drained its national resources faster than Germany
• Alliances→Balance of power within the European continent was expressed through two major alliances
  • Triple Alliance→ Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungarian empire
  • Triple Entente→ Britain, France, and Russia
  • Alliances created in the interest of National Security on both sides or to isolate rival states
  • Mobilization Timetables for railroads were created in case a war broke out, Once it has begun it will be difficult to stop
  • Railroads will be the main vehicle to mobilize troops in war
• Imperialism→caused by the desire to project power on the world stage
  • Germany→ under the influence of National unity and military sought to enlarge its empire at the expense of other European powers
  • Imperial holdings secure + no territory to conquer = Europeans experience conflict over existing colonial holdings
• Nationalism→the glorification of one state and defining the other states as enemy
  • Nationalistic messages are embraced through schools, leading to convincing the population that others are bad and they need to be loyal to their state
  • Concing the youth that their national identities were under threat from rival states
  • Conflict needs to be dealt with using force and not compromise
• Assassination
  • Gavrilo Princip → Serbian nationalist shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austria-Hungarian empire over regional dispute
    • Causing an international war over something little
    • The assassination was caused by nationalism
  • Timeline
    • Assassination occurs due to nationalism
    • Alliances were forced to join the fight
    • Firing the process of mobilization
    • WWI begins

7.3 Heimler notes

How the war was fought

• World War I was the first Total War
• Total War→ A war that requires the mobilization of a country's entire population, both military and civilian, to fight
  • Everyone including civilians and soldiers was required to contribute to the war efforts
  • Civilians considered viable targets for military efforts
• Propaganda→ a motivation for everyone to make sacrifices and join war efforts, overall used to boost morale and nationalism
  • Propaganda campaigns demonized enemies and exaggerated atrocities enemies committed
  • Produced in forms of Art and various media including newspapers, posters, and pamphlets
  • Utilized intensive nationalism which was one of the causes of WWI
  • People began to view the world as a collection of enemy rivals, and their national identities were most important to them
• Total War Strategies
  • Schlieffen plan
  • New military technologies made WWI the deadliest war in human history
    • Machine guns, chemical gas, and tanks
  • Trench Warfare→each side digs miles of trenches on opposite sides and hunkered down for protection
    • not a new strategy but done in an excessive amount
    • led to years of stalemates where casualties mounted but neither side made progress
  • Indian Infantry→ Using colonial troops to fight your war
    • Porters in war whose job was to carry military equipment to various locations
    • Colonies fought in hopes of gaining independence which did not occur

End of War

• Lasted for four years and caused many casualties and destruction
• The turning point was the US joining the fight with Britain and France
• The US originally wanted to remain neutral but Germany sank their ships and tried to incite Mexico to start a war with US dragging them into WWI
• Central powers lose and Allied powers win
• Paris Peace Conference of 1915 occurs
  • Treaty of Versailles→ Marked peace and end of war + punished Germany which caused WWII

7.4 Heimler notes

The economic crisis

• German Hyperinflation
  • The Treaty of Versailles required them to pay other European powers to make up for all the money lost during the war which they could not afford
  • Germany is now in debt leading to the printing of more money
  • Germany can pay off debt to Britain and France, then they can pay their debt to the USA
  • Soviets weren´t paying back their war debts + had a communist revolution which decided that old debt didn't belong to the new Bolshevik government
  • Colonial Governments suffered because they had come to depend on the economies of their parent countries
• Germany borrows money from the US leading to rapid economic recovery

Soviet Union

• Russian Revolution of 1917 allowed Russia to exit WWI
• Vladimir Lenin→ got the communist government involved and instituted the New economic policy
  • introduced some limited free market principles
  • biggest institutions remained under state control
  • economic policies died with him
• Joseph Stalin→ wanted the Soviet Union to industrialize quickly
  • Five Year Plan→ aimed to multiply Soviet industrial capacity by five years
    • Accomplished through a strong-armed state bent on brutality
  • Collectivization of Agriculture→ merging small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state
    • used to supply the rapidly growing industrial centers
    • Kulaks resisted collectivization leading to the arrest of 8 million executed or sent to hard labor camps
    • Peasant farmers were left who were not as skilled and did not match production quotas
  • Famine areas→harvest were half of what they had been before
  • Ukraine productions were all exported to feed workers and not other civilians
    • Millions starved to death as a result
  • Holodomor→ death by hunger

The Great Depression

• Took place within the US after the stock market had crashed
• The US's inability to continue funding European powers led to the Great Depression becoming a Global Crisis
• Franklin D. Roosevelt
  • New Deal
    • The government put people to work on infrastructure projects
    • Introduced a government-sponsored retirement program
    • Created government medical insurance for the elderly and children

WWII eventually solved all of the US´s economic issues

7.5 Heimler Notes

Colonies

• European powers and Japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in some cases, states gained colonial territory as a result of the war
• New states emerged after the war
• The Republic of Turkey→ Leader is Ataturk
• In many places colonial territory was tossed from one imperial power to another

The Mandate System in the Middle East

• Paris Peace Conference that ended WWI aimed to dismantle the Ottoman and German empires and divided the colonial powers among themselves
• Woodrow Wilson→commited the ultimate colonial imperial foul
  • US president who kept insisting during peace negotiations that self-determination ought to be the guiding principle of a post-war
    • States should have the right to govern themselves
• Mandate system→Middle Eastern territories would become mandates administrated by the League of Nations
  • Three-tiered structure to classify these territorial holdings
    • Class C Mandates
      • Smallest population and least developed
      • Treated as colonies
      • Several islands in the Pacific
    • Class B Mandates
      • Larger populations but still underdeveloped
      • Most of Germany´s colonies in Africa
    • Class A Mandates
      • Large populations and sufficiently developed
      • Suitable for independence and self-rule
  • Britain occupies Iraq and Palestine
  • France occupies Syria and Lebanon
  • This enraged the colonies and led to anti-colonial resistance

Japan´s Expansion

• Only non western state make themselves equal to Western power
• Invaded Manchuria to expand its Empire and gain access to resources
  • Violation of rules established by the League of Nations
  • League could not enforce its rules and Japan quit it to continue their quest
  • Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity sphere

Anti-Imperial resistance

• Colonial Resistance
  • Indian National Congress
    • Formed before the war in the 19th century
    • formally petitioning the British government for greater degrees of self-rule in India
    • British domination continued even after the many Indians fought for Britain during WWI
    • Mohandas Ghandhi→ lead Indians in peaceful protest
  • African National Congress
    • Founded in South Africa by Western-educated lawyers and journalists
    • Dedicated to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa
    • Pan- Africanism→ aimed for the equality and unity of all black people across the world

7.6 Heimler notes

Causes of WWII

- WWI Grievances

• Italy
  • Bitter because they did not receive promised land grants in Austria and the Ottoman Empire
  • Before the war broke out Italy was allied with Germany but when the allied powers promised land grants, Itlay broke the alliance with Germany + fought against them
    • Italy was not as helpful as they thought and so they took away the land grants they previously promised
  • Mussolini becomes enraged
• Germany
  • Required to pay reparation payments ruined their economy
  • Forced demilitarization, making them vulnerable
  • War guilt clause→ Blamed Germany alone for the entire war
    • Engineered by Britain and France to humiliate Germany on the World stage
    • Enraging Hitler

-Continued Imperialism

• Japan
  • Expanded into China and Pacific which upset the League of Nations
• Italy
  • expanded on its own due to unfulfilled promises, invading Ethiopia and consolidating all its colonial holdings in the African continent
• Germany
  • expanded under Hitler by reclaiming former land that was taken from them because of the Treaty of Versailles
  • First expanding into the Rhineland which was a buffer zone between them and France + Czechoslovakia and Austria in the name of living space
  • Britain and France fail to stop Germany from expansion due to the fear of beginning another WW
  • The policy of Appeasement→Hitler can expand with no consequences

-Economic Crisis

-Fascism/Totalitarianism

• Soviet Union→ Russia is transformed into a communist state
  • Stalin worried the other Western powers because his actions proclaimed that he wasn´t satisfied for communism to remain Soviet reality but instead wanted the rest of the world to be communism
• Fascism→A political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and materialistic means to achieve its goals
  • Benito Mussolini rose to power and established a fascist state in Italy
    • Organized all of Italy to serve his vision
    • Lowered standards of living
    • Social Security and public services were state-funded
    • Delivered nationalistic speeches, glorifying Italians, and their cultures
    • Organized parades, used mass communication technologies to obtain public support and make Italy great on the World stage
• Adolf Hitler
  • The most fascist was Germany
  • He took hold of the Nazi party
  • Used mass communication technology to spread his nationalistic messages about Germany
  • Claimed that the enemy of all Germans were socialists, communists, and Jews
  • Nazi party policies improved standards of living for many Germans
  • It was precisely Hitlerś ability to put language to Germany´s humiliation and suffering that made his cure so compelling
• Hitler´s Policies
  • Cancel reparation payments
  • Remilitirize Germany
  • Territorial Expansion (Lebensraum)
  • Eliminate ¨ïmpure¨ races
    • Mainly Jews

7.7 Heimler Notes

Another Total War

• WWII was the second Total War and had a more devastating impact
• The most immediate cause of the war was Hitler´s invasion of Poland
• Like WWI alliance formed on two sides
• Axis powers → included Germany, Italy, and Japan who were Fascist
• Allied Powers→ Britain, France, Soviet Union, and US
  • Soviet Union and US joined later on
  • Soviet Union breaks former alliance with Germany due to their invasion attempt
  • Pearl Harbor bombing leads to the US joining the fight for the opposite side

Mobilization

• WWII Propaganda
  • Used to provoke nationalism in its people
  • used to demonize their enemies
  • Used to Sow Fear
    • Assemble massive armies
    • Keen civilians sacrificed on the home front
• Ideologies of WWII
  • Fascism
    • Glorification of the state
    • Use of Militaristic means
    • Organized politically and economically
    • Serves the interest of the state and not the people
    • Hitler made use of all the people he conquered to serve the war effort and established labor camps for Jews and slavs
  • Communism
    • Soviet Economy
    • Rapid Industrialization through Five Year Plans
    • Brutal and unflinching demands
  • Democracy
    • Winston Churchill→ Britain's new prime minister
      • Did not put up with Hitler’s expansion efforts
      • Relied on the persuasion of his people
    • Propaganda dubbed it a ¨people´s war¨
    • The government promised the expansion of welfare
• US
  • After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the US forced Japanese--Americans into internment camps because the government feared that they were operatives of the enemy
• Germany
  • Jews and other undesirables were forced into ghettos as a result of the Nur Burgh laws
  • Later moved to concentration camps and were forced into hard labor or killed

Strategies and Technologies

• Blitzkrig→ A shock and awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed which was used by Germany
  • Combined Air Assault from planes and quick infantry movements from tanks
• Firebombing→small clusters of explosive devices that were meant to fall in urban areas and did damage by starting fires
• Atomic Bomb→ Destabilizing particles on the atomic level + could destroy an entire city
  • Developed by the US
  • Dropped on Japan resulting in their surrender and the end of the war in the Pacific

In the end, the Allied powers prevailed both in Europe and the Pacific

7.8 Heimler Notes

Causes of Mass Atrocities

• Two World Wars
  • About 120 million deaths
  • 50% being civilians
• New Technologies
  • Aerial Warfare→ Firbombing + Atomic Bomb
• The rise of extremist political Ideologies aiming to destroy entire populations on account of race or ethnicity

Major Atrocities

• Armenian Genocide→Ottoman Empire began a program revisioning their state as primarily Turkic under the influence of the Young Turks which cast their suspicion upon Christian Armenians
  • Mass extermination and slaughter
  • Relocation of Armenians
• The Holocaust→The desire to create a pure race and therefore exterminate those who tarnished that purity
  • Including ROMA, Homosexuals, the disabled, political enemies, many others
  • The Jewish population has the worst
  • Nuremberg law→Stripped the rights of Jews and forced them into ghettos + concentration camps
    • Auschwitz was the name of the camps they were placed into
    • Killed through gas chambers
• The Cambodian Genocide→Kema Rouge takes control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot
  • Began to change Cambodia into an Agrarian state and completely erase all Western influence
    • Emptied cities forced people to work in labor camps and targeted the education population who were influenced by Westernized ideals
    • Was not as racially motivated but caused the death of a quarter of Cambodia´s population

UNIT 8

8.1 Heimler Notes

Two Superpowers arise

• Cold War→ A state of hostility that exists between two states characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare
  • Between the Soviet Union and the US
  • Allied powers were affected economically due to the WWII
  • Two Global Powers emerged as a result→ The United states and the Soviet Union
• Economic and technological advantages
  • The reason why US and USSR emerged as global powers

Economic advantages

• United States
  • WWII affected the economy as more women were involved in the work force
  • The US avoids geographical and economic damage outside of Pearl Harbor due to its distant geographical location
  • Marshall Plan→sent money in aid for economic recovery in war-torn nations which lead to those nations experiencing a revival
  • Balance of power shifts to the USA
• Soviet Union
  • Economy was heavily directed by the state
  • Command economy draws skepticism from free market minded folks+ in years leading up to WWII, the soviet economy grew rapidly, growth led to suffering and death of Soviet citizens
  • Soviet Economy
    • Natural Resources
      • Enormous territory
    • Large population
    • Investment before WWII
      • infrastructure was already in place

Technological Advances

• US develops most advanced + devastating weapon→ Atomic Bomb
  • Deployed two on Japan ending war in the Pacific Theatre
  • The US was high on the scale of most advanced military tech
• The Soviet Union refuses to be intimidated and begins to advance their own weapon art and tech
• Arms Race→ A lot of money was invested into developing bombs
  • Nuclear and Hydrogen bombs

Decolonization

• WWs create the stage for this
  • Colonies had to fight for the imperial parents against their will in hopes that their sacrifice would be honored with indépendance
• Woodrow Wilson→ Insisted on self-determination for all nations
  • vetoed and Mandate system was enacted instead
• Mandate system→ Divided the colonies of world into a hierarchical system with varying degrees of self-rule based upon their ability to sustain themselves
  • Did not follow through leading to the Colonies becoming infuriated
• WWII
  • Massive anti-imperial movements broke out due to no effort being made toward indépendance after fighting for others outside the colony
  • Due to the WWs draining European powers from resources and military, the rebellions were more successful

UNIT 8.2

The Cold War

• The United Nations
  • Allies wanted to create a new organization to maintain peace.
  • The League of Nations failed because it lacked support from power nations like the U.S. and was unable to act quickly on emerging conflicts.
  • United Nations: International organization established in 1945, promoting world peace and cooperation.
• Economic and Political Rivalry
  • Iron Curtain: Metaphor describing political split between Eastern and Western Europe, used by Winston Churchill in 1946.
  • In Capitalist Countries, economic assets are owned privately and people have the right to act in their own interest.
  • In Communist Countries, economic assets are owned by the government, with equality and fairness being emphasized.
  • The United States elected leaders through free voting, with political parties competing and independent press providing information.
  • The Soviet Union’s elections were not important as a single party dominated politics, with the press being operated by the government.
  • The Soviets were criticized for the lack of human rights and freedoms given to civilians.
  • The U.S. was criticized for wealth gaps and discrimination of minorities and women.
• International Affairs
  • Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union were forced to develop 5 year economic plans focusing on industry and collective agriculture, rather than consumer products. Non-communist political parties were outlawed to enforce this.
  • Satellite Countries: small states dependent on stronger states economically or politically.
    • These countries were forced to import only Soviet goods and export only to them
  • World Revolution: belief that organized workers would overthrow capitalist governments.
  • As the Soviets viewed capitalism as a threat to their power, they supported uprisings prior to World War II.
  • Containment Policy: U.S. diplomat George Keenan advocated for limited the spread of communism.
    • Other politicians argued they should overthrow new communist governments.
  • Truman Doctrine: Statement from U.S. President Harry Truman that they would go to extreme measures to stop the spread of communism, especially in Greece and Turkey.
    • Soviet Union attempted to put military bases in Turkey to control.
    • In Greece, communist parties were close to gaining control of the government.
  • Marshall Plan: U.S. 12 billion dollar aid to all of Europe, designed to prevent communist revolutions from occurring in the economically unstable continent.
    • The plan worked as it majorly boosted European economies.
  • Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: As the Soviets and their sattelite countries declined U.S. aid, they made an organization to develop trade and credit agreements within the region.
• Space and Arms Race
  • Space Race: Started by the Soviet’s satellite in 1957, them and the U.S. competed with aerospace developments and the mission to land first human on the moon.
  • Mutual Assured Destruction: The U.S. and Soviet Union developed such powerful nuclear weapons at similar pace that both knew a war would cause total destruction.
• Non-Aligned Movement
  • Bandung Conference: New African and Asian countries met in 1955, where they passed resolutions to condemn communism and to stay independent from the two superpowers.
  • Non-Aligned Movement: Third world countries attempt to stay apart from Cold War rivalry.
    • Member states became closely allied with either the U.S. or the Soviet Union.
    • War broke out between Ethiopia (supported by the Soviets) and Somalia (supported by the U.S.)

8.3 NOTES

Effects of the Cold War

• German Separation
  • Allies divided Berlin into 4 zones (for each Allied Country), with Britain, France, and the U.S. combining their zones into one free democratic city.
  • Berlin Blockade: June 1948 - May 1959, The Soviets set up a blockade in the Western Allied Berlin zones, to prevent supplies from moving into them.
  • Berlin Airlift: Allies flew supplies into their Berlin zones until the Soviets lifted the blockade.
  • After the blockade, Germany split into the Federal Republic of Germany (Western) and the German Democratic Republic (Eastern).
  • East Germans fled to Western Germany for the democratic lifestyle, which hurt the communist economy and reputation.
  • Berlin Wall: Wall made by the German Democratic republic to prevent it's population from escaping from 1961-1989.
• New Alliances
  • Soviet Union was backed up to the newly communist governments of Eastern Europe.
  • North Atlantic Treaty Organization: In April 1949, Western nations signed a treaty pledging mutual support and cooperation against conflicts and wars.
  • Warsaw Pact: Alliance formed by the communist bloc, combining their armed forces and led by Moscow, Soviet Union capital.
    • Yugoslavia never joined and Albania left in 1968.
  • Other Organizations formed to stop spread of communism in other regions.
    • Southeast Asia Treaty Organization: Formed by Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States to stop spread of communism in Southeast Asia
    • Central Treaty Organization: Anti-Soviet treaty organization formed by Iran, Great Britain, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkey to stop spread of Communism in the middle east.
• Proxy Wars
  • Wars during the cold war were called proxy wars as the armies of smaller countries were stand-ins (proxies) for the U.S.S.R. and the U.S, yet still resulted in millions of deaths.
  • After WWII, the Allies split the Korean Peninsula into North (Soviet occupied) and South (U.S. occupied)
  • The Korean War begun when North Korea attempted to invade South Korea and reunite the region under a communist government.
    • The UN voted to defend South Korea with the U.S. providing most troops.
    • The Soviet Union sent money and weapons to North Korea.
    • As the UN forced toward’s North Korea’s border with China, China sent troops to fight against them as they feared the United States would invade them.
    • The war ended in a stalemate with about 4 million deaths and Korea still divided.
  • Vietnam War: Communist North Vietnam launched an invasion on South Vietnam.
    • As the war went on, the U.S. increased millitary support in South Vietnam as they feared a communist takeover in Vietnam would cause the rest of the region would become communist too (Domino Theory).
    • In March 1973, U.S. took all troops out of Vietnam, and 2 years later North Vietnam won.
  • Communist revolutionaries took over Cuba in 1959 and soon set up a government and economy similar to the Soviet Union.
  • The U.S. blocked off all economic and diplomatic ties with Cuba as the country was forming an Alliance with the U.S.S.R.
  • Bay of Pigs: John F. Kennedy aided Cuban exile’s invasion which was a total failure and solidified a Cuban-Soviet alliance.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis: Series of tensions threatening nuclear war as the U.S. placed nukes in Turkey while the Soviets placed tired to place some in Cuba but were stopped. Eventually they both withdrew theirs.
    • Hot Line (Cold War): direct telegraph link between the U.S. and Soviet leaders offices to avoid sudden crisis.
  • Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975, but the borders set by Portugal concealed rival ethnic groups into one country. Each group fought for power and control of the diamond mines.
    • U.S.S.R. and Cuba supported the Mbundu tribe
    • United States supported the Bankongo tribe
    • South Africa supported the Ovimbundu tribe
    • Ended with a cease-fire in 2002
  • Contra War: Period of violence in Nicaragua between the Sandinista (socialists) and the Contra (conservative and U.S. supported).
• Anti-Nuclear Weaponry
  • Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Signed by the U.S. and Soviet Union, along with over 100 other states, to put an end to nuke testing (except underground) due to environmental dangers.
  • Nuclear Proliferation Treaty: Called on nuclear power nations to prevent spread of the technology to non-nuclear countries.
  • Japanese Anti-Nuclear Movement: Japanese petitioned to ending U.S. nuclear missile testing in the pacific.

8.4 Unit Notes

Spread of Communism after 1900

• Land Reform: redistribution or change of laws/regulations surrounding land

Communism in China

• In 1927 Chinese nationalists and communists were fighting over control of the country, but the two agreed to both fight Japan when they invaded China.
• Once WWII was over, the Chinese Civil War continued with the communists gaining popular support as they implemented nationalist policies like land reforms, hospital and educational improvement, and stronger justice system.
  • Peasants saw the communists as more nationalist and less corrupt.
• Mao Zedong: Leader of the Chinese Communists and founded the People’s Republic of China.
• China started to reform the economy into a industry heavy one like the Soviets.
• Great Leap Forward: Policy promoting many land reforms in China.
  • Communes: large agricultural communities owned by the state, where peasants were moved into. Protesters were killed or sent to reeducation camps.
  • Reeducation: Places of brainwashing, torture, hard labor, and punishment for those not loyal to the Chinese Communist Party.
• Mao continued to export grain to Africa and Cuba to create strong economic image, while about 20 million Chinese died from starvation.
• Cultural Revolution: Mao Zedong’s effort to strengthen China’s commitment to communism and solidify his power.
• Red Guards: Chinese revolutionary students, sent by Mao to bring people to reeducation camps.
• Although both communist, China and the Soviet Union competed for influence around the world like in Albania, and the two had border disputes.

Turmoil in Iran

• Britain and Russia fought for control over Iran and competition grew when oil was discovered early 20th century.
• During WWII Russia and Britain invaded Iran to prevent them from helping the Nazis.
  • Muhammad Reza Pahlavi was put in power by the Allies, and in 1951 Iranian nationalists kicked him out the country as they saw him as a western puppet.
  • Iran put in Mohammad Mosaddegh, vowing to nationalize oil production.
  • U.S. and Great Britain took back control and the shah ran a ruthless authoritarian regime.
• White Revolution: Period Iranian progressive reforms.
  • Government bought land from landlords and resold to peasants at a cheaper price.
  • Peasants who were not helped and landlords forced to sell opposed the land reforms.
• In 1979, The Iranian Revolution overthrew the shah and emerged was a new government that complied with the Islamic law (shariah).
• Theocracy: a form of government where religion is supreme authority.

Latin America Land Reforms

• In Venezuela, the government redistributed large land-owner’s land in addition to some state-owned land, in total ~5 million acres.
  • Citizen support was split as those who benefited were happy, but landowners were not.
• In Guatemala, Jacob Arbenz attempted land reforms. The US Fruit Company was threatened and forced the US government to overthrow Arbenz.

Asian and African Land Reforms

• Independent and Communist Vietnam redistributed land to peasants, making them supportive, yet with violent strategies.
• In South Vietnam, the government was slow on land reform, making them unpopular with the people.
• Haile Selassie aligned Ethipoia with western powers, and prospered from coffee trade.
  • As he was unable to redistribute land, citizens saw him as pawn of U.S. imperialism.
• A new socialist government took control of Ethiopia led by Mengitsu Haile Mariam, and received help from the Soviet Union, but he was very unsuccessful and failed by 1991.
• After WWII, India became independent and partitioned into Pakistan (Muslim) and India (Hindu) in 1947.
• In Kerala, progressive land reforms and wage fixes went through, but were undone by the Indian Central Government, despite being popular.

8.5 NOTES

Decolonization after 1900

Autonomy movements of India and Pakistan

• Hindu and Muslims groups united their desire for independence from Britain and were successful, led by Gandhi.
• Muslim League: Supporters for a separate nation for the Muslims of India (Pakistan).
• Protesters of Gandhi’s approach for unity put differences aside during WWII, but continued after.
• Britain was ready to negotiate South Asian independence after being weakened from WWII, economic pressures, and the Royal Indian Navy Revolt of 1946.
• India and Pakistan both claimed independence in 1947.

Ghana and Algeria

• With the aid of the United Nations, the independent Gold Cost combined with the former British Togoland to form the first Sub-Saharan independent country, Ghana (1957).
• Pan-Africanism: idea that Africans have common interests and should be unified.
• Kwame Nkrumah: First President of Ghana.
  • Nkrumah constructed national narratives about glory for Ghana, to increase Ghanaian nationalism.
  • When voters agree to a One Party State due to economic problems, Nkrumah claimed dictatorial powers.
  • Organization of African Unity: Founded by Nkrumah, alliance of independent African nations with the goal of cooperation between new African governments.
  • In 1966 Ghana was overthrown by a military coup and a President did not return till 2000.
• Prior to independence for Algeria, they faced violance rising from economic, political, and social crisis protests and the French government’s enforced response.
• The Algerian War for Independence was fought between Algerians who wanted independence and French settlers who believed the colony was part of France at that point.
  • National Liberation Front (FLN): Radical nationalist movement in Algeria.
  • French Communist Party sided with Algeria, causing violence in the streets of France.
  • FLN maintained a socialist authoritarian rule that didn’t tolerate dissent (one party rule).
• Algerian Civil War: Starting in 1991, violent conflict begun with Islamic rebel groups against the Algerian FLN government.
• Ghana promoted elected governments while Algeria consisted of authoritarian power and banning elections, which brought harsh fighting.

French West Africa Independence

• During the indirect rule, France invested infrastructure and agriculture into West Africa, returning trade revenue.
• By 1959, many West African French colonies negotiated independence.

Vietnam Division

• After and before WWII, France occupied Southern Vietnam.
• Ho Chi Minh: communist leader of North Vietnam.
• Vietnamese War of Independence: Northern Vietnam forces and France fought over control of South Vietnam, ending with a peace treaty splitting North and South Vietnam as independent countries.
• Fearing a communist take over of the Vietnams, the US and South Vietnamese governments fought the Northern Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.
  • North Vietnam took over after 1975, and spread some communist rule to Laos and Cambodia.
  • Made economic reforms.

Egypt

• Egypt became a nominally independent kingdom in 1922 with some British authority until the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty gave Egypt more power.
• In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian King and established the Republic of Egypt.
  • Nasser supported Pan-Arabism, and his policies combined Islam and socialism.
  • Begun to nationalize businesses, including an attempt on the Suez Canal.
• Suez Crisis: When Nasser of Egypt tried to nationalize the Suez Canal, owned by Britain and France, leading to Israel invading Egypt on behalf of Britain and France.
  • The U.S. and Soviet Union opposed the action and interfered, leading to peaceful compromise.

Nigeria´s Independence and Civil War

• Biafran Civil War: After Nigeria gained independence from Britain, the Igbos, a Christian tribe in oil rich region, declared independence due to Islamic attacks on them, but failed.
• Nigerian government tried to prevent tribalism from breaking up the country, by established states between ethnic/religious lines
• Conflicts over Nigerian government exploitation of the oil occurred with destructive protests.

Quebec Silent Revolution

• Quiet Revolution: The peaceful change of government in Quebec.
  • Divide between French nationalist Quebec people and British.
  • Canada stayed together despite efforts for Quebec independence.

8.6 Unit Notes

Newly independent State

Israel Founded

• First proposal of creation of Jewish state at the First Zionist Congress.
• The Balfour Declaration favored the establishment of the Jewish state in Palestine despite Muslim occupation.
• As Britain gained mandate of former Ottoman lands, Zionists began to immigrate from Europe and some of the Middle east to Palestine, angering Arabs in Palestine losing their way of life.
• The United Nations responded to Arab opposition by dividing the newly Jewish part of Palestine into Israel.
• War broke out quickly between Israel supported by the United States, and Palestine supported by Arab countries. Arab forces attempted to invade Israel but failed and 400,000 Palestinians became refugees.
  • Six-Day War of 1967: Israel conquered land from Egypt, West Bank, Jordan, and Syria at once.
  • Yom Kippur War of 1973: Israel repelled a secret invasion from Egypt and Syria.
• Camp David Accords: Peace treaty from U.S. President Jimmy Carter, accepted between Egypt and Israel but rejected by Palestine and supporting Arab state.
• Palestinian Liberation Organization: Formed by Arab states wanting return of Israel occupied lands and creation of independent State of Palestine.
• During 21st century, Palestine split into the Fatah and the Hamas, while Israel implemented harsh polcies on them and took over more of their considered land. Arabs developed hatred towards Israel and the U.S. and instability.

Cambodian War and Independence

• Cambodia pressured France to grant it’s independence in 1953.
• Getting drawn into the Vietnam War, a communist organization called Khmer Rogue overthrew Cambodia’’s right-wing government.
• The Khmer Rogue instituted a ruthless cultural revolution like China did, killing a quarter of the population.
• After the Vietnam War, Vietnam helped Cambodia regain stability, and withdrew in 1989.
• The United Nations monitored Cambodia’s free elections, and the country developed a free democratic government with a market-like economy.

India and Pakistan Division

• During the partition, many Hindus and Sikhs left Pakistan to India, and many Muslims left India for Pakistan, resulting in 500,000 - 1 million deaths.
• Despite similar democratic governments, distrust between the two countries grew.
• Kashmir Conflict: Both India and Pakistan claimed the mountain region of Kashmir on their borders, leading to armed conflict and split control with China gaining ~20%.

Women's Power in South Asia

• In both India and Pakistan, women had voting rights.
• Sirimavo Bandaranaike: World’s first female prime minister after she was voted on in Ceylon/Sri Lanka, 1960.
  • After being voted out and then back on, she implemented many radical reforms, but the economy was slow and she lost power once again in 1977
• After India’s first prime minister died, his daughter, Indira Gandhi, took over and strengthened India’s economy.
  • Before being assassinated in 1984, Indira overcame a national emergency in 1975 from poverty, and grew the economy greatly as well as reforming corrupt laws.
• Benazir Bhutto: First elected female leader in a Muslim state, as prime minister of Pakistan from 1988-1990 she failed to help the economy and was later exiled(1999), then assassinated (2007)

Tanzania Modernization

• United Republic of Tanzania established independence from the British in 1961.
• Julius Nyerere: Served as first president of Tanzania, instituted socials ideas and campaigns for development in education and farming.
  • Could not pull country out of economic hardship and poverty, leading to his resignation.

Emigration

• Large amounts of refugees from Southeast Asia emigrated to Britain after WWII.
• Metropole: Large city of a former colonial ruler.
• Vietnamese emigrated to France.
• Filipinos emigrated to the United States.
• Migrants found jobs in the medical department, railroads and airports, keeping economic and cultural ties strong.

8.7 NOTES

Global resistance to Established power structures

Nonviolent Resistance

• In India, Mohandas Gandhi led marches, boycotts, and fasts leading to India’s independence from Britain in 1947.
• Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the leading activists in the U.S. civil rights movement.
  • Brown v Board of Education: Court decision to ban racial segregation of schools in the U.S.
  • Public transit boycotts and mass marches.
• Socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela, led resistances to apartheid in South Africa with nonviolent protests.

Challenges to Soviet Power in Eastern Power

• As Polish workers demonstrated against Soviet domination, Wladyslaw Gomulka pursued independent policies as secretary of the Polish communist party, while being loyal to the USSR.
• In Hungary, protesters convinced leader Imre Nagy to end Soviet control, declare neutrality during cold war by leaving the Warsaw Pact, and allowing free elections.
  • Soviet Union responded by successfully invading Hungary, generating many refugees.
• In Czechoslovakia, secretary Alexander Dubcek increased freedoms for citizens and made the political system more democratic. However, Soviets and their allies crushed the movement.
  • Brezhnev Doctrine: Responding to the independence in Czechoslovakia, a official Soviet document stated that the Union and their allies would intervene in members threatening socialist growth.

Year of Revolt

• In 1968, many key revolts occurred around the world.
• In Yugoslavia, students marched against the authoritarian government.
• In Poland and Ireland, there were religious protests.
• Brazil experienced movements for worker and education reforms.
• In Japan, students protest university and financial policies, and Japanese support for the US in Vietnam.
• In France there were student protests for reforms in education, civil rights, and worker rights which were responded by police brutality. 10 million French workers went of strike bringing new elections.
• In addition to protests for civil rights in the United States, there were protests against the Vietnam War, such as the one at Kent State University, 1970.

Age of Terrorism

• Individuals unaffiliated with governments committed terrorist acts around the world.
• Northern Irish protested against the UK keeping them as not independent.
  • Most of Ireland Roman Catholics but Northern Ireland dominated by Protestants, leading to discrimination towards the Catholics. They wanted to become part of Ireland, not UK.
  • Catholics fought as the Irish Republican Army, they committed acts of terrorism in British cities. Protestants fought as the Ulster Defense Association.
  • Conflict went on from 1969-1994 with a 3,500 deaths.
• The Basque Separatist Movement wanted independence for the Basque region of Spain, they killed over 820 people until they decided to settle the issue politically.
• The Shining Path Organization wanted to overthrow Peru’s government and replace it with a communist one like Mao Zedong’s and the Khmer Rouge.
  • Led by Abimael Guzman, the Shining Path killed over 37,000 in 20 years of terrorism until the leaders admitted defeat and started negotiations.
• Small groups like the Boko Haram, Al-Shabaab, the Levant (ISIL), and the Taliban used a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam to justify terrorism, mostly on Muslims.
  • Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden attacked many different countries including the U.S. on September 11th, 2001, where over 3,000 people died in crashed planes. The U.S. and allies weakened Al-Qaeda and took bin Laden down in 2011.
• The United States faced terrorism from groups associated with white-nationalism and discrimination against the minorities in the country.

Response of Militarized States

• Dictator Francisco Franco of Spain executed and imprisoned political dissenters until his death in 1975 led Spain towards a democratic government.
• The “Butcher of Uganda”, Idi Amin, was a military dictator of Uganda and through his self-declared leadership for life he constructed policies worsening ethnic tensions, denying human rights, and increased refugees.
  • Responsible for 500,000 deaths among targeted ethnic groups and expelled 60,000 Asians.
  • Ugandan nationalists and Tanzanian troops took Amin down when he tried to invade Tanzania.

Military Industry Complex

• As countries lacked facilities for weapon production, arms trade spread rapidly during this time of many conflicts.
• The Military Industry Complex was growing so powerful in America that it threatened the country’s democracy.

8.8 NOTES

End of the Cold War

Final Decades

• Agreements to limit nuclear weapons important to end of Cold War
• Detente: Period of relaxation of strained relations between the Soviet Union and the US.
• Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): Treaty designed to freeze number of intercontinental ballistic missiles the two rival countries could keep.
• Detente was helpful to the Soviet Union because:
  • Soviet Union was no longer growing, thus in a economic crisis.
  • Soviet bloc countries were protesting for freedom from Soviet control.
  • Soviet Union had conflicts over border with China, both communist countries.
• The United States was struggling with the negative press from the Vietnam War and the economy.
• The US sent grain to the drought struggling Soviet Union, helping them and American farmers.
• Soviet-Afghan War: Soviets invaded Afghanistan trying to support their communist government against Muslim rebels. Despite many refugees and casualties, the Soviets were unsuccessful and withdrew in 1989, while Afghanistan remained in a civil war and the Soviets were weakened.
• President Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) referred to the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and sent support to the Afghans, increasing Cold War tensions.
• Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): United States created a missile defense program that would supposedly destroy any Soviet missiles fired towards them.
  • As Soviets had no system to respond with, they objected this plan.
• With tensions increasing in the 1980s, other nations believed they had to choose a side
• Progressive communist leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power (Soviet Union) in 1985.
  • Perestroika: attempts to restructure the Soviet economy allowing elements of free enterprise.
  • Glasnost: policy of opening up Soviet society and granting greater freedoms.
• Gorbachev and Reagan liked each other in their meetings and created a working relationship.
• The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF): 1987 treaty agreeing on restricting intermediate-range nuclear weapons. Heavily reduced risk of nuclear war.
• With Cold War pressures cooling, Gorbachev started to implement his policies.

Fall of the Soviet Union

• Gorbachev’s program ended economic support for Soviet satellite countries, and ultimately was responsible for the fall of the Soviet Union.
• Once those countries had a taste of freedom, and started democratic reform movements including the fall of the Berlin Wall and unification of Germany.
  • Soviet republics revolted and declared independence.
  • Warsaw Pact dissolved.
  • Russia emerged as the strongest of the new republics.
• With the Cold War over and the Soviet Union dissolved, trade and the world was ore interconnected than ever before.
  • Interconnections of the world led to wealth for some but struggles for others.
  • World left to deal with genocides, terrorism, environmental degradation, ethnic conflicts, new democracies, economic inequality, and global epidemics.

UNIT 9

9.1 Unit Notes

Advances in Technology and exchange

Communication and transportation

• The radio brought news and culture to a wide range of people.
• Air travel and shipping containers promoted the widespread movement of goods and people.
• Social media helped human right protests in the US and in the Arab Spring movement, share their issues with the world.

Green Revolution

• The Green Revolution was a series of agricultural innovations in the mid 20th century, which dramatically increased global food production.
• Scientists created new methods for grain production that they believed would solve world hunger.
  • Crossbreeding: breeding two varieties of a plant to create a hybrid.
• Genetic Engineering: manipulating a cell or organism to its basic characteristics.
• Slash and Burn: Used by countries such as Brazil, forests were burned down and plowed for agricultural land.
• Small farmers struggled as they couldn’t afford pesticides/fertilizers like large landowner, forcing them to sell their land to those owners, resulting in unequal land distribution.
• Chemicals used by farmers damaged the environment.
• The revolution brought mechanization to the farming industry, decreasing the amount of jobs.

Energy Technologies

• As technologies developed, petroleum and natural gas fueled industrial output and productivity.
• Nuclear research for the weapons also led to it being a source of energy for homes. But because of nuclear power-plant accidents, the building of them decreased starting in the 1980s.
• The expansion of fossil fuels has led to serious environmental damage and climate change.
• Renewable energy production has been developed to fight fossil fuels, but only make up a small portion of the world energy source.

Medical Innovations

• Penicillin became the world’s first antibiotic in 1928.
• Antibiotic: A type of medication that is used to treat bacterial infections. It works by either killing the bacteria or preventing them from multiplying.
  • WWII antibiotics saved many soldiers from minor infections.
  • As they spread to civilian use, many feared the overuse of them would lead to drug-resistant diseases.
• Birth Control Pills were used first in 1960, they were reliable and accessible.
  • Fertility Rates lowered as a result.
  • Gender roles and sexual practices changed.
• Vaccines begun to be used for preventing diseases, preventing many deaths but not as many as they could’ve due to distribution issues.

9.2 NOTES

Disease in Poverty

• Despite cures, diseases can sick around in areas with poor living conditions and lack of access to health care.
• Malaria is a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes in tropical areas, killed over 600,000 people each year early 21st century.
  • Spread quickly through poor areas in Africa where mosquito protection wasn’t accessible.
  • Doctors Without Borders treated ~1.7 million annually in South Saharan Africa. They implemented many strategies to prevent the spread but a vaccine wasn’t approved until October 2021.
• Tuberculosis is an airborne infection, spreading through coughing or sneezing, that damages the lungs and is deadly.
  • Cure in 1946 was developed using antibiotics and rest, these vaccines were distributed to countries many cases.
  • Strain resistant to the usual vaccine appeared and spread quickly through prisons, WHO began a world wide campaign against it in the 2010s.
• Cholera is a bacterial disease that spreads through contaminated water that kills 95,000 people per year.
  • People in poorly sanitized areas are very vulnerable as vaccines do not reduce the need for prevention. A severe infection can kill you within hours.
• Polio is a disease caused by water contaminated by a virus in fecal matter, can cause paralysis or death.
  • Jonas Salk announced a injection vaccine to fight the disease in 1955, and Albert Sabin created an oral one 6 years later.
  • Despite polio being eliminated in most countries after campaigns from the UN and other organizations, it still exists in places like Afghanistan and Pakistan where there is war and political unrest, making it hard to distribute vaccines.

Epidemics

• In WWI, more soldiers died from disease than battle, calling the need for medical innovations.
• The flu became widespread in America and was spread to the rest of the world through soldiers.
• HIV/AIDS is a disease that weakens the immune system so that it can be defeated by any disease.
  • Spread through exchange of bodily fluids, caused panic between 1981-2014.
  • Antiretroviral Drugs were created in the mid 1990s to treat the virus. However, they are very expensive meaning they aren’t accessible in poorer areas that don’t provide them for free.
• Discovered in 1976 Congo, Ebola is a disease caused by a virus spreading from African fruit bats to humans and other primates.
  • Causes internal bleeding, organ failure, and likely death.
  • 2014 outbreak in West Africa caused panic but was contained by public health efforts, led by the WHO.

Chronic Diseases

• As people lived longer, they started to develop chronic diseases like heart disease.
  • Christiaan Barnard performed first heart transplant in 1967, a major innovation.
  • Robert Jarvik designed the first artificial heart as a temporary treatment.
• Alzheimer’s Disease is an extreme form of dementia where patients can eventually remember nothing, not even bodily functions, leading to death. There are treatments but no cure.

International Terrorism and War

• After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international security - organizations like NATO, United Nations, International Criminal Court in The Hague (prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders) to provide international aid to those in need
• War in the Gulf
  • Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves so they invaded Kuwait in 1990 under leadership of Saddam Hussein
  • United Nations sent forces to drive Iraqis out in early 1991 - now called Persian Gulf War
  • UN liberated Kuwait and put severe limitations on Iraq’s military and economic activity (although Hussein remained in power for another 10 years)
  • In 2003, coalition of countries, mostly US and Britain invaded Iraq to oust Hussein - Hussein was captured in December 2003 and a democratic government was formed in 2005
  • Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds groups, a Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani and a Shia minister, Nouri ai-Maliki were elected, but they still have faced a number of challenges
• Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden
  • In early 1980s, Soviets sent troops to Afghanistan under at request of Marxist military leader Nur Muhammad Taraki
  • Afghanis opposed communism and fought back until Soviets withdrew troops - left a power void that warring factions vied to fill
  • Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14 years of fighting
  • Provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of the international terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically despised the US
    • US:
      1. Supports Israel
      2. Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia
      3. Is the primary agent of globalization believed to be infecting Islamic culture
  • On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked US by hijacking 4 US planes and flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New York, 1 into the Pentagon, and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000 people died
    • US immediately declared a war on terrorism and invaded Afghanistan - the Taliban was removed from power and Osama bin Laden was killed, but Al Qaeda still survives
  • Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur throughout Europe and the Middle East

Environmental Change

• Global integration has caused global environmental concerns
• Green revolution of 50s and 60s led to destructions of traditional landscapes, reduced species diversity, and social conflicts to produce inexpensive food
• Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human activity - outcome is uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing enough to limit their environmental damage

Global Health Crisis

• Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat them
• AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS and treatment is expensive
• Global health issues highlight global disparities as the disproportionately affect low-income individuals

Age of the Computer

• The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the Internet
• In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes
• Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought people closer together
• Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of user data, which is considered by many a breech of privacy