Knowt
ap world unit terms
unit 1
East and Southeast Asia
Buddhism: A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th-5th century BCE, focused on the Four Noble Truths and achieving enlightenment (nirvana) through the Eightfold Path.
Mahayana Buddhism: A branch of Buddhism that emerged in the 1st century CE, emphasizing compassion, the role of bodhisattvas, and a more accessible path to enlightenment.
Chan Buddhism: A Chinese form of Buddhism that blended Daoist traditions with Buddhist practices, emphasizing meditation and direct experience over scriptures; later evolved into Zen Buddhism in Japan.
Confucianism: A philosophy developed by Confucius (551–479 BCE) emphasizing filial piety, social harmony, education, and a structured society based on relationships.
Neo-Confucianism: A revival of Confucian thought during the Song Dynasty that incorporated elements of Buddhism and Daoism, emphasizing morality and rational philosophy.
Daoism: A Chinese philosophy/religion emphasizing harmony with the Dao (the Way), balance (yin-yang), and nature, founded by Laozi.
Hangzhou: A major trading city in China, especially prominent during the Song Dynasty as a cultural and economic center.
Nam Viet (Vietnam): The historical name for Vietnam during its early interactions with China before achieving independence.
China and the Mongols
Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE): A Chinese dynasty known for its economic growth, technological advancements (gunpowder, paper money, compass), and Neo-Confucianism.
Song Taizu: The founding emperor of the Song Dynasty who centralized power and expanded the examination system.
Zhu Xi: A Song Dynasty scholar who was a key figure in the development of Neo-Confucianism.
Islamic World
Abbasid Dynasty/Caliphate (750–1258 CE): A major Islamic dynasty known for cultural and scientific advancements during the Islamic Golden Age, centered in Baghdad.
Abu Bakr: The first caliph after Muhammad's death, considered a rightful leader by Sunni Muslims.
Allah: The Arabic word for God in Islam.
Caliph: The political and religious leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad's death.
Dar-al-Islam: The Islamic world, where Islamic law and culture are dominant.
Five Pillars of Islam: The core beliefs and practices of Islam, including faith, prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage.
Hajj: The pilgrimage to Mecca that all Muslims are expected to undertake at least once if able.
Islam: A monotheistic faith founded by Muhammad in the 7th century CE, based on the Quran.
Ka’ba: The sacred shrine in Mecca, central to Islamic worship and the hajj.
Mecca: Islam’s holiest city, where Muhammad was born and where the Ka’ba is located.
Medina: The city where Muhammad migrated (Hijra) and established an Islamic state.
Muhammad: The founder of Islam and regarded as the final prophet by Muslims.
Muslim: A follower of Islam.
Quran: The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God as revealed to Muhammad.
Shia: A branch of Islam that believes leadership should come from Muhammad's descendants.
Sufi: A mystical branch of Islam focused on spiritual closeness to God.
Sunni: The largest branch of Islam, believing leadership should go to the most capable rather than a specific lineage.
Umayyad Dynasty (661–750 CE): The first major Islamic dynasty, known for expansion and the establishment of Arabic as the official language.
South Asia & Indian Ocean Trade
Bhakti Movement: A Hindu devotional movement that emphasized personal devotion to gods, rejecting caste distinctions.
Caste System: The Hindu social hierarchy based on hereditary groups and occupations.
Majapahit Kingdom: A powerful maritime empire in Southeast Asia (1293–1527) known for controlling trade routes.
Monsoons: Seasonal winds in South and Southeast Asia that facilitated trade.
Sultanate of Delhi: A series of Muslim dynasties that ruled northern India (1206–1526).
Vijayanagar Kingdom: A Hindu kingdom in South India that resisted Muslim influence and thrived in trade.
Khmer Empire: A powerful Southeast Asian empire (9th–15th century), known for Angkor Wat.
Angkor Wat: A massive Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia.
The Americas
Aztec Empire: A Mesoamerican empire (14th–16th century) centered in Mexico, known for military power, tribute system, and human sacrifice.
Mexica: The ethnic group that founded the Aztec Empire.
Teotihuacan: An ancient Mesoamerican city with pyramids, influential before the Aztecs.
Tenochtitlan: The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco.
Cahokia: A major Native American mound-building city in North America.
Chinampa: Floating gardens used by the Aztecs to maximize agricultural productivity.
Cuzco: The capital of the Inca Empire.
Tezcatlipoca: An Aztec god associated with war, magic, and destiny.
Huitzilopochtli: The Aztec sun god and god of war.
Quetzalcoatl: A feathered serpent god in Mesoamerican mythology.
Pueblo: Indigenous people of the American Southwest known for their stone and adobe dwellings.
Mongols and Their Successors
Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan): The founder of the Mongol Empire, who united the Mongol tribes and led conquests across Asia.
Ilkhanate of Persia: A Mongol khanate in Persia after the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Khan: A Mongol ruler.
Khanate of Chaghatai: A Mongol state in Central Asia.
The Golden Horde: A Mongol khanate that ruled over Russia and Eastern Europe.
Khubilai Khan: The grandson of Genghis Khan and founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China.
Mongols: A nomadic group from Central Asia that created the largest land empire in history.
Yuan Dynasty: The Mongol-ruled dynasty of China (1271–1368).
Tamerlane: A Central Asian conqueror who built a large empire after the Mongols.
Islamic and European States
Ottoman Empire: A major Islamic empire that lasted from 1299 to 1922.
Safavid Empire: A Persian Islamic empire (1501–1736), known for Shia Islam.
Seljuq Turks: A nomadic group that controlled parts of the Middle East and fought the Byzantines.
Sultan: A Muslim ruler.
Sultanate of Delhi: Muslim-ruled kingdoms in northern India (1206–1526).
Indian Ocean Trade & African Kingdoms
Dhow: A small trading ship used in the Indian Ocean.
Junk: A large Chinese trading ship.
Emporia: Trading posts or markets.
Magnetic Compass: A Chinese invention that improved navigation.
Astrolabe: A navigation tool used for determining latitude.
Cross and Back Staves: Instruments used for navigation.
Kingdom of Ghana: A West African kingdom known for gold trade.
Kingdom of Mali: A West African kingdom, home to Timbuktu.
Sundiata: The founder of the Mali Empire.
Mansa Musa: The wealthy ruler of Mali, famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca.
Swahili: A Bantu-Arabic language and culture in East Africa.
Kilwa: A major Swahili trading city.
Great Zimbabwe: A powerful city-state in southern Africa.
Kin-based Societies: African societies based on family and tribal networks.
Europe
Capetian Dynasty: A ruling dynasty of France (987–1328).
Holy Roman Empire: A political entity in Europe that claimed succession from Rome.
Investiture Controversy: A conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor over the appointment of bishops.
Marco Polo: A Venetian traveler who documented his journeys to China.
Reconquista: The Christian campaign to reclaim Spain from Muslim rule.
William the Conqueror/Normans: The Duke of Normandy who conquered England in 1066.
unit 2
Exploration and Trade Networks
Bartolomeu Dias: A Portuguese explorer who, in 1488, became the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope), opening the sea route to Asia.
Christopher Columbus: An Italian navigator who, in 1492, sailed west under the Spanish crown and reached the Americas, initiating sustained European contact with the New World.
Ibn Battuta: A 14th-century Muslim scholar and traveler who documented his extensive journeys across the Islamic world, from North Africa to China.
Marco Polo: A Venetian merchant and traveler whose accounts of his travels to the Yuan Dynasty (China) under Kublai Khan introduced Europeans to Asian goods and cultures.
Zheng He: A Chinese Muslim admiral and diplomat during the Ming Dynasty who led large naval expeditions to the Indian Ocean, expanding Chinese influence.
Chinese Dynasties
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644): A Chinese dynasty that restored Chinese rule after the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, known for exploration (Zheng He), the Great Wall’s expansion, and economic prosperity.
Qing Dynasty (1644–1912): A Manchu-led dynasty that ruled China after the Ming, expanding its borders and consolidating imperial rule.
Islamic and Central Asian Empires
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258): An Islamic dynasty that ruled much of the Muslim world, fostering intellectual and cultural achievements before being weakened by Mongol invasions.
Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan): The Mongol leader who unified the Mongol tribes and established the largest contiguous land empire in history.
Ilkhanate of Persia: A Mongol khanate that controlled Persia after the fall of the Abbasids, adopting Islam and Persian administration.
Khan: A Mongol ruler or leader.
Khanate of Chaghatai: A Mongol-ruled region in Central Asia, significant for maintaining trade along the Silk Roads.
The Golden Horde: A Mongol khanate that ruled over Russia, parts of Eastern Europe, and Central Asia, collecting tribute from local rulers.
Khubilai Khan: The grandson of Chinggis Khan and founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China, promoting trade and cultural exchange.
Mongols: A nomadic group from Central Asia that established a vast empire, revolutionizing trade, communication, and military tactics.
Ottoman Empire: A Turkish-led Islamic empire that emerged in the 14th century, capturing Constantinople in 1453 and expanding across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.
Safavid Empire: A Persian empire (1501–1736) known for establishing Shia Islam as the dominant faith.
Seljuq Turks: A nomadic Turkish group that established a powerful Islamic empire in Persia and Anatolia before the Mongols.
Sultan: A Muslim ruler with political and military authority.
Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526): A Muslim-ruled kingdom in northern India, significant for cultural exchanges between Islam and Hinduism.
Tamerlane (Timur): A Central Asian conqueror who sought to revive the Mongol Empire, leading military campaigns across Persia, India, and Russia.
Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368): The Mongol-led dynasty of China founded by Khubilai Khan, marking the first time China was fully ruled by foreigners.
Technological and Maritime Innovations
Dhow: A traditional sailing vessel used in the Indian Ocean trade, known for its triangular (lateen) sails.
Junk: A large Chinese ship used for oceanic trade, particularly during the Ming Dynasty.
Emporia: Key trading cities that acted as hubs in the Indian Ocean trade network.
Magnetic Compass: A Chinese invention that revolutionized navigation by allowing sailors to determine direction at sea.
Astrolabe: A tool used for navigation by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies.
Cross and Back Staves: Instruments used by sailors to measure latitude.
Trans-Saharan Trade & African Kingdoms
Camel: An animal domesticated for transport, essential for trade across the Sahara Desert due to its ability to store water.
Kingdom of Ghana (c. 700–1200): A West African kingdom that grew wealthy through the trans-Saharan gold and salt trade.
Kingdom of Mali (c. 1200–1600): A powerful West African empire that controlled key trade routes and became a center of Islamic learning.
Sundiata: The founder of the Mali Empire, known for unifying the region and promoting trade and Islam.
Mansa Musa: A famous ruler of Mali who made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca, displaying the kingdom’s immense wealth and spreading Islamic influence.
Swahili: A Bantu-Arabic culture and language that developed in East Africa due to Indian Ocean trade.
Kilwa: A major Swahili city-state that flourished through trade with Persia, India, and Arabia.
Great Zimbabwe: A powerful South African kingdom known for its impressive stone architecture and role in gold trade.
Bubonic Plague
Bubonic Plague (Black Death): A deadly pandemic that spread across Eurasia via trade routes in the 14th century, killing millions and weakening feudal economies.
unit 3
Gunpowder Empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal)
Akbar (r. 1556–1605): The most notable Mughal emperor, known for expanding the empire, promoting religious tolerance, and centralizing administration.
Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707): A Mughal ruler who expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent but reversed Akbar's policies of religious tolerance, leading to internal strife.
Babur (r. 1526–1530): The founder of the Mughal Empire in India, a descendant of Timur and Chinggis Khan, who conquered Delhi in 1526.
Isfahan: The capital of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas, known for its stunning architecture and cultural flourishing.
Istanbul: Formerly Constantinople, it was captured by the Ottomans in 1453 and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
Janissaries: Elite Ottoman infantry soldiers recruited through the devshirme system, loyal only to the sultan.
Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1444–1446, 1451–1481): The Ottoman sultan who captured Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.
Mughal Empire (1526–1857): A powerful Muslim empire in India known for cultural synthesis, monumental architecture (e.g., Taj Mahal), and administrative innovations.
Osman Bey: Founder of the Ottoman Empire and leader of the Turkish tribes that expanded into Anatolia.
Ottoman Empire (1299–1922): A major Islamic empire that expanded into the Balkans, Middle East, and North Africa, utilizing gunpowder weaponry and a strong centralized bureaucracy.
Shah Ismail (r. 1501–1524): Founder of the Safavid Empire who established Shiism as the state religion of Persia.
Safavid Empire (1501–1736): A Persian empire that promoted Shiism and often clashed with the Sunni Ottoman Empire.
Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658): Mughal ruler who commissioned the construction of the Taj Mahal, a symbol of Mughal artistic and architectural achievements.
Shiism: A branch of Islam that believes leadership should stay within the Prophet Muhammad’s family; it was the official religion of the Safavid Empire.
Sufis: Islamic mystics who played a key role in spreading Islam, often blending Islamic teachings with local traditions.
Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566): The greatest Ottoman sultan who expanded the empire, reformed laws, and supported cultural and artistic advancements.
Sunni: The largest sect of Islam, which believes that leadership should be chosen by consensus rather than direct lineage from Muhammad.
Taj Mahal: A stunning mausoleum built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, blending Persian, Indian, and Islamic architectural styles.
Tamerlane (Timur) (r. 1370–1405): A Central Asian conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire and sought to restore Mongol dominance.
Timurid Empire: A short-lived empire founded by Tamerlane, which laid the foundation for the later Mughal Empire.
Political and Administrative Systems
Devshirme system: An Ottoman practice of forcibly recruiting Christian boys from the Balkans, converting them to Islam, and training them for military or administrative service.
Battle of Chaldiran (1514): A decisive battle where the Ottoman Empire defeated the Safavid Empire, demonstrating the effectiveness of Ottoman gunpowder weaponry and limiting Safavid expansion.
Ivan III (the Great) (r. 1462–1505): The Russian ruler who freed Muscovy from Mongol rule, centralized power, and styled himself as Tsar.
Muscovy: The principality that expanded to become the Russian Empire under Ivan III.
Italian city-states (Milan, Venice, Naples, Pisa, Genoa, Florence): Independent and wealthy maritime and trade powers in Italy that played a key role in the Renaissance and European commerce.
Reconquista (718–1492): The Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule, culminating in the fall of Granada in 1492.
Divine Right Theory of Kings (James I of England): The belief that monarchs were chosen by God and thus held absolute power, without needing consent from subjects.
Justices of the Peace: English local officials who helped enforce the monarch’s policies, strengthening royal control.
Intendant system: A system used by the French monarchy where officials were appointed by the king to enforce royal policies in provinces, centralizing power.
Palace of Versailles: A lavish palace built by Louis XIV to display royal power and control the French nobility.
The Forbidden City: A massive palace complex in Beijing built during the Ming Dynasty, symbolizing imperial power and exclusivity.
Tax farming (Iltizam): A system where private individuals collected taxes for the government, often leading to corruption and heavy taxation on peasants.
Zamindar: Landowners in the Mughal Empire who collected taxes on behalf of the empire, playing a role in administration and governance.
Religious and Cultural Transformations
Protestant Reformation: A religious movement in the 16th century that challenged the Catholic Church’s authority, leading to the creation of Protestant denominations.
Martin Luther: A German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by posting the 95 Theses, criticizing the Catholic Church’s corruption and practices like indulgences.
John Calvin: A Protestant leader who emphasized predestination and established Calvinism, which influenced religious and political thought in Europe.
English Reformation: A religious and political movement in England where Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church, creating the Church of England (Anglican Church).
Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation): The Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation, reforming itself through new religious orders, the Council of Trent, and reaffirmation of core doctrines.
Ignatius Loyola: A Spanish Catholic reformer who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) to promote education and missionary work.
Society of Jesus (Jesuits): A Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola, focused on education, missionary work, and defending Catholicism.
Cultural Syncretism: The blending of cultural and religious traditions, often seen in regions where diverse groups interacted, such as in the Mughal and Ottoman Empires.
Japan and China
Daimyo: Powerful Japanese landowning lords who controlled samurai armies before the unification of Japan.
Shogun: The military ruler of Japan, holding real power while the emperor remained a figurehead.
Tokugawa Japan (1603–1868): The period of political stability under the Tokugawa Shogunate, which isolated Japan from foreign influence and enforced strict social hierarchy.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644): The Chinese dynasty that overthrew the Mongols, re-established Confucian governance, and pursued maritime exploration under Zheng He before turning inward.
Son of Heaven: The belief that the Chinese emperor was divinely chosen to rule, reinforcing imperial authority.
Manchu: A Northeast Asian ethnic group that founded the Qing Dynasty after overthrowing the Ming in 1644.
unit 4
Maritime Technology and Exploration
Sternpost Rudder: A key innovation in shipbuilding that allowed for better maneuverability and more precise navigation, contributing to the success of European maritime exploration.
Caravel: A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, used for exploration along the African coast and across the Atlantic.
Carrack: A larger, sturdier ship developed by the Portuguese and Spanish, designed for long ocean voyages, particularly during the Age of Exploration.
Fluyt: A Dutch-designed cargo ship with a shallow draft, optimized for the transport of goods, contributing to the Dutch dominance in global trade in the 17th century.
Volta do Mar: A navigational technique developed by the Portuguese, meaning "return through the sea," which involved sailing in a wide arc to use wind patterns to return to port more efficiently.
Vasco da Gama: A Portuguese explorer who first reached India by sea, establishing important maritime trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
Afonso d’Alboquerque: A Portuguese naval commander who played a key role in establishing the Portuguese colonial empire in the Indian Ocean, capturing key ports like Goa and Malacca.
Astrolabe: A navigational instrument used to determine the position of celestial bodies, improving navigation at sea.
Manila Galleons: Spanish ships that carried trade goods across the Pacific Ocean between the Philippines and Mexico, connecting the Americas with Asia.
Joint-Stock Company: A business model that allowed investors to pool capital for overseas trade and colonization, spreading financial risk and contributing to the rise of European empires.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): An agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided the non-European world into spheres of influence, giving Spain rights to most of the Americas and Portugal control over parts of Africa and Asia.
Exploration and Conquest
Ferdinand Magellan: A Portuguese explorer leading the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (1519–1522), although Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines.
Sebastián el Cano: A Spanish navigator who completed Magellan’s expedition and became the first to circumnavigate the globe.
Captain James Cook: An English explorer who mapped the Pacific Ocean, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii, paving the way for British colonial expansion in the Pacific.
East India Company: British and Dutch trading companies that held monopolies on trade with Asia, playing a major role in the establishment of European colonial empires in India and Southeast Asia.
Columbian Exchange: The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Old World and the New World after Columbus' voyages, radically reshaping ecosystems and societies.
Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer under Spanish patronage whose 1492 voyage across the Atlantic led to the European discovery of the Americas.
Amerigo Vespucci: An Italian explorer who, through his voyages, demonstrated that the lands discovered by Columbus were part of a separate continent, later named America in his honor.
Bartolomeu Dias: A Portuguese navigator who was the first European to round the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope), opening the sea route to Asia.
Cape of Good Hope: The southern tip of Africa, navigated by Dias, which provided a sea route from Europe to Asia.
Cape Horn: The southernmost point of South America, circumnavigated by explorers such as Magellan, marking a critical passage for global maritime trade.
Colonialism and the Americas
Hernán Cortés: A Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, claiming vast territories for Spain.
Francisco Pizarro: A Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, enriching Spain through the extraction of gold and silver.
Francis Drake: An English pirate and privateer who circumnavigated the globe and raided Spanish colonies and ships, helping England challenge Spanish dominance.
Northwest Passage: A theoretical sea route across the Arctic to Asia, sought by European explorers but never successfully navigated until much later.
Jacques Cartier: A French explorer who claimed parts of Canada for France, particularly the St. Lawrence River region.
Henry Hudson: An English explorer who sought the Northwest Passage and explored parts of Canada and New York, including the Hudson River.
Economic Systems
Trade Post Empire: An empire that established military and commercial outposts to control trade routes, rather than territorial conquest, such as the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.
Kingdom of Kongo & Portugal: The Kingdom of Kongo in Central Africa interacted with Portugal through trade, but the relationship deteriorated as Portugal sought to dominate the slave trade.
Potosí Silver Mine: A major silver mine in Bolivia, one of the richest in the world, which supplied vast amounts of silver to Spain and contributed to the global economy.
Hacienda System: A system in Spanish colonies where large estates were worked by indigenous or enslaved labor, producing agricultural goods for export to Europe.
Encomienda System: A Spanish labor system in the Americas where conquistadors were granted control over indigenous people, who were forced to provide labor in exchange for protection and Christianization.
Debt Peonage/Debt Slavery: A system in which laborers are bound to their employers until they repay debts, often used in the Spanish colonies and on plantations.
Engenhos: Portuguese sugar mills in Brazil that became key centers of sugar production, relying on enslaved African labor.
Social Systems and Hierarchy
Indentured Servitude: A labor system in which individuals worked for a specified number of years in exchange for passage to the Americas or other benefits, often leading to exploitation.
Casta System: A social hierarchy in Spanish colonies that categorized individuals based on race and ethnicity, with Europeans at the top and indigenous peoples and Africans at the bottom.
Mestizo: A person of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in the Spanish colonies.
Mulatto: A person of mixed European and African ancestry in the Americas.
Zambo: A person of mixed African and indigenous ancestry, often at the bottom of the social hierarchy in colonial Latin America.
Peninsular: A Spaniard born in Spain who lived in the Spanish colonies, holding the highest social status.
Creole: A person of Spanish descent born in the Americas, often wealthy but ranking below peninsulares in colonial society.
Economic Theory and Global Trade
Mercantilism: An economic theory that emphasized maximizing exports, minimizing imports, and accumulating precious metals like gold and silver to increase national wealth and power.
Triangle Trade: The transatlantic trading system where slaves were shipped from Africa to the Americas, sugar and other goods were sent to Europe, and European goods were shipped to Africa.
Putting Out System: A system in which merchants provided raw materials to rural households where workers processed them into finished goods, bypassing guilds and cities.
Rebellions and Resistance
Pueblo Revolt (1680): A successful uprising of indigenous Pueblo people in New Mexico against Spanish rule, temporarily driving the Spanish out.
The Fronde (1648–1653): A series of French uprisings against the authority of King Louis XIV, caused by noble resistance to centralized royal power.
Cossack: A group of semi-nomadic people in Russia known for their military skill and resistance to Russian central authority, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Boyar: Russian nobles who held significant power before the centralization of Russian authority under Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) and later tsars.
Religious Systems
Marathas: A powerful Hindu warrior group in India that resisted the Mughal Empire and later established their own Maratha Empire.
Dhimmi: Non-Muslim subjects in Islamic empires (such as the Ottoman Empire) who were granted protection but had to pay the jizya tax.
Jizya: A tax imposed on non-Muslims in Islamic states, particularly in the Mughal Empire and Ottoman Empire, as part of their protection and religious tolerance.
Millet System: An administrative system used by the Ottoman Empire that allowed religious communities (e.g., Christians, Jews) to govern themselves under their own laws.
unit 5
The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution: A period in the 16th and 17th centuries in which new scientific ideas and methods transformed traditional understandings of the natural world, marking the shift from medieval to modern science.
Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution
Copernicus: A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, stating that the Earth revolved around the Sun, challenging the geocentric model.
Kepler: A German astronomer who formulated the laws of planetary motion, supporting the heliocentric theory with the concept that planets move in elliptical orbits.
Galileo: An Italian astronomer who supported the heliocentric model, improved the telescope, and made significant astronomical observations, leading to his conflict with the Catholic Church.
Newton: An English mathematician and physicist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, laying the foundation for classical mechanics.
Revolutions and Political Change
American Revolution: A revolution (1775–1783) in which the Thirteen American Colonies overthrew British rule, leading to the creation of the United States of America.
Ancien Régime: The political and social system in France before the French Revolution, characterized by absolute monarchy and a rigid class structure.
Declaration of Independence: The 1776 document in which the American colonies declared their independence from Britain, asserting the natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: A French revolutionary document (1789) that outlined the individual and collective rights of all men, influenced by Enlightenment ideals.
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen: A feminist response (1791) to the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, asserting the rights of women in society.
The Three Estates of France: The divisions of French society before the Revolution: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners, including peasants, workers, and bourgeoisie).
Deism: A philosophical belief in a rational, impersonal God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs, popular during the Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment: An intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and the questioning of traditional authority, influencing revolutions and political change.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: A French philosopher known for his work on the social contract and advocating for a government based on the general will of the people.
Voltaire: A French Enlightenment writer and philosopher who advocated for civil liberties, religious tolerance, and freedom of speech.
Social Contract Theory: A political theory developed by Rousseau, Hobbes, and Locke, which argues that people give up certain freedoms in exchange for social order and protection by the state.
Thomas Hobbes: An English philosopher who argued in "Leviathan" that humans in their natural state are selfish and that absolute government is necessary to avoid chaos.
John Locke: An English philosopher who argued that people are born with natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that governments should protect these rights with the consent of the governed.
Key Events and Documents
English Civil War: A conflict (1642–1651) between the monarchy (Charles I) and Parliament, leading to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell.
Magna Carta: A 1215 English document that limited the power of the king and established certain legal rights for English citizens, laying the foundation for constitutional government.
The Glorious Revolution: A 1688 peaceful overthrow of King James II of England, leading to the ascension of William and Mary and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in Britain.
English Bill of Rights (1688): An English law that established the rights of Parliament and limits on the power of the monarchy, reinforcing the principles of constitutional government.
US Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, protecting individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process.
Louis XVI: The King of France during the French Revolution, whose poor leadership and financial mismanagement contributed to the outbreak of revolution. He was executed in 1793.
The French Revolution: A period of radical social and political change in France (1789–1799), leading to the overthrow of the monarchy, rise of Napoleon, and establishment of the French Republic.
Haitian Revolution: A slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (1791–1804), led by Toussaint Louverture, that resulted in the creation of the independent nation of Haiti.
Women and Rights
Mary Wollstonecraft: An English writer and advocate for women's rights, best known for her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), which argued for equal education for women.
Olympe de Gouges: A French revolutionary who wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen" (1791), advocating for gender equality in the context of the French Revolution.
Philosophe: An intellectual during the Enlightenment, typically French, who advocated for reason, progress, and reform in areas such as politics, society, and science.
Nationalism and Revolutions in the Americas
Nationalism: A political ideology emphasizing the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence and in pursuit of independence or unity.
Simon Bolívar: A South American revolutionary leader who helped to liberate several Latin American countries from Spanish rule and attempted to create a unified Latin American republic.
Toussaint Louverture: The leader of the Haitian Revolution, who fought against both French and Spanish forces to end slavery and establish an independent Haitian state.
Father Hidalgo: A Mexican priest who initiated the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, rallying indigenous and mestizo support against Spanish rule.
José de San Martín: An Argentine general and revolutionary leader who helped lead South American countries, including Argentina, Chile, and Peru, to independence from Spain.
Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution/Second Industrial Revolution: The period of major industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries that began in Britain and spread to other parts of the world, characterized by technological innovation, urbanization, and social changes.
Crop Rotation: A farming technique in which different crops are planted in a field each year to restore nutrients to the soil and prevent crop depletion.
Enclosure Movement: The process in Britain of consolidating small landholdings into larger farms, which displaced rural workers but increased agricultural efficiency.
Selective Breeding of Animals: The practice of breeding animals with desirable traits (such as greater size or productivity) to improve livestock quality.
“More and Better Food”: The result of agricultural improvements, including crop rotation, selective breeding, and new tools, leading to increased food production and supporting population growth.
Key Inventions and Systems
The British Empire: A global empire established by Britain through colonization and trade, becoming the largest empire in history.
Putting Out System: A system in which merchants provided raw materials to rural workers, who processed them into finished goods at home, bypassing traditional guilds.
Textiles: The industry at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, including the production of cotton, wool, and silk fabrics.
Flying Shuttle (John Kay): An invention that allowed one weaver to operate a loom, speeding up the process of weaving cloth.
Spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves): A spinning machine that significantly increased yarn production, helping to fuel the textile industry.
Water Frame (Richard Arkwright): A spinning machine powered by water, which increased the scale of textile production.
Power Loom: An automated loom powered by steam or water, improving the speed and efficiency of weaving.
Factory System: A system of manufacturing where workers and machines are brought together in one location, replacing traditional home-based production.
Steam Engine (James Watt): A key invention that powered factories, trains, and ships, revolutionizing transportation and industry.
The Rocket: A steam-powered locomotive developed by George Stephenson that revolutionized transportation, enabling trains to travel at unprecedented speeds.
“Triple Win” of Railroad: The economic benefits of railroads, including faster transportation of goods, the creation of jobs, and the stimulation of other industries like steel and coal.
Samuel Slater: An English immigrant to the U.S. who brought British textile technology to America and helped establish the American industrial revolution.
Trans-Siberian Railroad: A network of railroads connecting European Russia with the Pacific Ocean, facilitating economic and military expansion into Asia.
Internal Combustion Engine: An engine that burns fuel internally, revolutionizing transportation with cars, airplanes, and ships.
Telegraph/Telephone: Innovations in communication that allowed for instant transmission of messages over long distances, significantly shrinking time and space.
“The Sick Man of Europe”: A term used to describe the weakening Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, as it lost territories and influence.
Muhammad Ali (not the boxer): The Ottoman governor of Egypt who modernized the country’s military and economy, becoming a key figure in the history of the Middle East.
Revolutions and Responses to Industrialization
Admiral Matthew Perry and his Black Ships: U.S. naval officer who forced Japan to open up to trade with the U.S. in 1854, ending Japan’s period of isolation.
Meiji Restoration: A period of rapid modernization and industrialization in Japan (1868–1912), as the country transitioned from feudalism to a centralized state.
The Communist Manifesto: A political pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that called for the working class to overthrow the capitalist system and establish socialism.
Karl Marx: A German philosopher and economist who co-authored the Communist Manifesto and developed the theory of Marxism, advocating for class struggle and the overthrow of capitalism.
Socialism: A political and economic theory that advocates for collective or government ownership and management of the means of production.
Communism (Scientific Socialism): A more radical form of socialism proposed by Karl Marx, in which the proletariat would seize control of the means of production and establish a classless society.
Adam Smith: An economist known for his work "The Wealth of Nations," advocating for free-market capitalism and the idea of the "invisible hand."
The Invisible Hand: A concept introduced by Adam Smith, suggesting that individuals pursuing their own self-interest would unintentionally contribute to the economic prosperity of society.
Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.
Corporations: Large companies or businesses that have legal status as separate entities from their owners, allowing for greater investment and expansion.
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation: A major international bank founded in 1865, playing a central role in global trade and finance.
Urbanization and Labor
Tenement: Crowded, poorly built apartment buildings that housed many working-class people, particularly in urban areas during industrialization.
Edwin Chadwick: An English social reformer who advocated for public health measures, such as sanitation and clean water, to improve urban living conditions during the industrial revolution.
Utilitarianism: A philosophy advocating that actions should be judged based on their ability to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Child Labor: The exploitation of children in factories, mines, and other industries, common during the early stages of industrialization.
Trade Union: An organization formed by workers to protect their rights, improve wages, and improve working conditions.
Chartism: A working-class movement in Britain in the 1830s and 1840s that demanded political reforms, such as universal male suffrage and better working conditions.
Suffrage: The right to vote in elections, often a key issue in political reforms.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American suffragist and social activist who played a leading role in the women’s rights movement, especially in securing voting rights for women.
Ottoman Empire and the Middle East
Tanzimat: A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century that aimed to modernize and centralize the empire’s administration.
Young Turks: A reformist political movement in the Ottoman Empire that advocated for constitutional government, modernization, and national unity.
Imperialism and Wars
The Opium Wars: A series of conflicts between China and Britain (1839–1842 and 1856–1860) over the British trade in opium, resulting in Chinese concessions to Western powers.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842): The treaty that ended the First Opium War, with China ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening several ports to foreign trade.
Cultural and Social Changes
“Cult of Domesticity”: A belief in the 19th century that women’s proper role was in the home, focusing on nurturing and domestic duties, often excluding them from public life.
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Imperialism: The policy of extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force, often involving the domination of one country over others.
Key Events and Concepts Related to Imperialism
Berlin Conference/Scramble for Africa: A meeting in 1884–1885 where European powers divided Africa into colonies without regard for indigenous cultures or existing boundaries, setting the stage for the "Scramble for Africa" and the colonization of the continent.
Otto von Bismarck: The Chancellor of Germany who played a crucial role in the unification of Germany and convened the Berlin Conference.
Rudyard Kipling/White Man’s Burden: Kipling was a British writer who wrote the poem "The White Man’s Burden," which argued that it was the duty of European powers to civilize and rule over non-European societies, reflecting the justification for imperialism.
East India Company: A British company that had a monopoly on trade in India and later became a de facto governing body, laying the foundation for British imperial control over India.
Afrikaners: The descendants of Dutch settlers in South Africa, primarily known for establishing the apartheid system and the Boer states.
South African War/Boer War: A war (1899–1902) between the British and the Afrikaner (Boer) republics over control of South Africa, resulting in British victory and the creation of the Union of South Africa.
Anglo-Zulu War: A conflict (1879) between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom in South Africa, resulting in a Zulu defeat despite initial successes.
Cecil Rhodes: A British imperialist who played a central role in the colonization of southern Africa and founded the De Beers diamond company, advocating for British expansionism.
Suez Canal: A strategic artificial waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, completed in 1869 and controlled by Britain and France as a vital route for imperial trade.
Settler Colony: A colony where large numbers of settlers from the imperial power migrate to the territory, often displacing indigenous populations (e.g., Australia, Canada, and South Africa).
Emilio Aguinaldo: A Filipino revolutionary leader who fought against Spanish and American colonization, leading the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War.
Indentured Labor (Indentured Servant): A system in which people from Asia, Africa, or other regions signed contracts to work for a specified number of years in exchange for passage to another country, often to work on plantations or in mines.
Contract Labor: Similar to indentured servitude, workers agreed to work for a set period under specified conditions, often in colonies or industrial ventures.
Penal Colony: A colony established by a country as a place to send prisoners as punishment, such as Britain sending prisoners to Australia.
Out Migration: The movement of people from one area to another, often due to imperial expansion or economic opportunities in colonies.
Leopold II (of Belgium): The Belgian king who personally controlled the Congo Free State (1885–1908), exploiting its resources and subjecting the population to brutal treatment.
Belgian Congo: The colony in central Africa controlled by King Leopold II of Belgium, notorious for its exploitation of the local population and natural resources, especially rubber.
Maori: The indigenous people of New Zealand, who were subjected to British colonization and settlement, leading to conflict and land loss.
Monroe Doctrine: A U.S. policy (1823) that opposed European colonialism in the Americas, asserting that any intervention by European powers in the Americas would be considered an act of aggression.
Social Darwinism: A theory that applied the principles of natural selection to human society, often used to justify imperialism and the belief in the superiority of certain races or nations.
Russo-Japanese War (1905): A war between Russia and Japan over control of territories in East Asia (Manchuria and Korea), in which Japan emerged victorious, signaling the rise of Japan as a world power.
Abdul Hamid II: The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1876–1909), known for his authoritarian rule and efforts to resist reforms in the face of growing nationalist movements.
Tanzimat: A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire (1839–1876) aimed at modernization and the establishment of legal equality for all subjects, including non-Muslims.
Young Turks: A reformist political movement in the late Ottoman Empire that sought to modernize the empire, promote Turkish nationalism, and establish a constitutional government.
Commodore Matthew Perry and the Black Ships: An American naval officer whose expedition to Japan in 1853 opened Japan to foreign trade, effectively ending its period of isolation.
Meiji Restoration: A period (1868–1912) in Japan when imperial rule was restored, and Japan rapidly industrialized, adopting Western technologies and political institutions.
Muhammad Ali (not the boxer): The Ottoman governor of Egypt (1805–1848) who modernized Egypt's military, economy, and infrastructure and expanded its territory, often regarded as the founder of modern Egypt.
Czar Nicholas II (of Russia): The last emperor of Russia, whose reign ended with the Russian Revolution of 1917, leading to the fall of the Russian Empire.
Economic Imperialism and Related Topics
Economic Imperialism (different examples of): The domination of a country’s economy by foreign powers, such as the British controlling India’s trade or the U.S. controlling Latin American resources through investments and trade.
Guano: A highly valued fertilizer made from bird droppings, primarily harvested in Peru and used as a key resource during the 19th century.
Palm Oil: A valuable commodity in West Africa, used in industrial manufacturing and food products, driving much of European imperial activity in the region.
Conflicts and Rebellions
Great Rebellion in India: Also known as the Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858), it was a major, but unsuccessful, rebellion against British rule in India, sparked by British policies and cultural insensitivity.
Sepoy: An Indian soldier who served in the British East India Company’s army, many of whom were involved in the Great Rebellion.
Opium War: A series of conflicts (1839–1842, 1856–1860) between China and Britain, primarily over Britain’s trade of opium in exchange for Chinese tea and silk, ending in Chinese concessions to European powers.
Treaty of Nanjing/Hong Kong/Extraterritoriality: The treaty (1842) that ended the First Opium War, forcing China to open ports to British trade, cede Hong Kong to Britain, and grant extraterritorial rights to British citizens in China.
Indigenous Peoples and Resistance
The Zulu: An ethnic group in Southern Africa, known for their powerful kingdom and resistance to British imperialism, notably in the Anglo-Zulu War.
Sphere of Influence: A region in which one country exerts dominant control over the economy, politics, or culture of another country, often without direct political control (e.g., China under European spheres of influence).
Social Issues, Migration, and Nationalism
Irish Potato Famine: A devastating famine (1845–1852) in Ireland caused by a potato disease, resulting in mass starvation and emigration to other countries, particularly the United States.
Diaspora: The dispersion of a people from their original homeland, often due to migration, conflict, or imperialism (e.g., the Jewish diaspora, African diaspora).
Ethnic Enclave: A geographic area with a high concentration of a specific ethnic group, often formed through migration.
Acculturation: The process of cultural exchange and adaptation that occurs when different cultures come into contact, often as a result of imperialism or migration.
Exclusion and Immigration Laws
Chinese Exclusion Act: A U.S. law (1882) that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers, reflecting racial and economic fears of competition from Chinese immigrants.
White Australia Policy: A set of laws and policies in Australia designed to exclude non-European immigrants, particularly Asians, from settling in Australia.
Different Reactions to Imperialism
Manifest Destiny: The belief in the 19th-century U.S. that it was destined to expand across the North American continent, often used to justify the displacement of Native Americans and territorial expansion.
Panama Canal: A key waterway completed in 1914 that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, constructed by the U.S. to facilitate trade and military movement, reflecting American imperial interests.
Spanish-American War: A conflict in 1898 between the U.S. and Spain, resulting in the U.S. gaining territories like Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, marking the beginning of American imperialism.
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Militarism: A policy of maintaining strong military forces and being prepared to use them aggressively to defend or promote national interests. This was a significant factor leading to World War I, as countries expanded their militaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Alliances: Agreements between countries to support each other in case of conflict. In the lead-up to World War I, the major alliances were the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom).
Imperialism: The policy of extending a nation’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Imperial competition, particularly in Africa and Asia, contributed to tensions leading to World War I.
Nationalism: A strong sense of pride and identity based on a shared culture, language, and history, often linked to the desire for an independent state. Nationalism in the Balkans, for example, led to instability and tensions before World War I.
Balkans: A region in southeastern Europe, often referred to as the "powder keg" of Europe, due to the complex mix of ethnic groups, nationalism, and imperial ambitions, which contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
Otto von Bismarck: The German Chancellor who unified Germany in the 19th century and formed the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary to isolate France, before stepping down in 1890.
Triple Alliance: A military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed in 1882, which was one of the key alliances during World War I.
Triple Entente: The alliance between France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, which opposed the Triple Alliance during World War I.
Kaiser Wilhelm II: The last German Emperor who reigned from 1888 until his abdication in 1918. His aggressive foreign policies and militarism contributed to the tensions leading to World War I.
“The Sick Man of Europe”: A term used to describe the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries due to its weakening power and territorial losses, contributing to the instability in the Balkans.
Annex: The act of formally incorporating a territory into a country. Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia in 1908 angered Serbia and Russia, contributing to tensions in the Balkans.
Bosnia: A region in the Balkans, annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, which increased tensions with Serbia and Russia and was a contributing factor to the outbreak of World War I.
Black Hand: A secret Serbian nationalist organization that was responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which triggered World War I.
Franz Ferdinand: The Archduke of Austria-Hungary whose assassination in Sarajevo by a member of the Black Hand in 1914 sparked the outbreak of World War I.
Von Schlieffen Plan: A German military strategy designed to avoid a two-front war by first defeating France quickly and then turning to fight Russia. It failed due to the resistance of Belgian forces and the rapid mobilization of British and French troops.
Western Front: The main theater of World War I, where German forces faced French, British, and later American forces, marked by trench warfare and high casualties.
Trench Warfare: A form of warfare where soldiers fight from trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire, creating a stalemate where neither side can gain significant ground. It led to high casualties and harsh conditions during World War I.
New Weapons of War
Machine Guns: Rapid-fire guns that allowed soldiers to mow down large numbers of enemies, designed to break the deadlock of trench warfare.
Tanks: Armored vehicles that could cross trenches and provide mobility on the battlefield, designed to break through entrenched positions.
Poison Gas: A chemical weapon used to force the enemy to abandon their trenches. It caused horrific injuries and was a weapon of terror.
Airplanes: Used for reconnaissance and later for bombing and dogfights, designed to gain aerial superiority and disrupt the enemy's operations.
Submarines (U-boats): Underwater vessels used by Germany for unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting merchant and military ships to disrupt supply lines.
Total War: A war that involves the complete mobilization of resources, including the economy and population, for the war effort, where civilian infrastructure and morale also become targets of military operations.
Propaganda: Information, often biased or misleading, used to promote a political cause or point of view, heavily used during World War I to rally civilian support and justify the war.
Rationing: The controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services, particularly during wartime, to ensure that military forces and civilians have enough supplies to continue the war effort.
U-boats: German submarines used in naval warfare, especially during World War I and II, designed for stealth attacks on enemy ships.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: The German policy of sinking any ship, including civilian, in waters around Britain, which was one of the factors that led the U.S. to enter World War I.
Lusitania: A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat in 1915, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, which led to increased U.S. support for entering World War I.
Russo-Japanese War: A war (1904–1905) between Russia and Japan, resulting in a humiliating defeat for Russia, contributing to the Russian Revolution of 1905.
Bloody Sunday: A massacre of Russian protesters by the czar’s troops in 1905, leading to widespread unrest and the 1905 Revolution.
Duma: The Russian legislative assembly created after the 1905 Revolution, which had limited power and was dissolved by Czar Nicholas II in 1917.
Karl Marx: A German philosopher and economist whose ideas about socialism and class struggle influenced the Russian Revolution and the rise of communism.
Proletariat: The working class, according to Marxist theory, who were seen as the key agents of revolution.
Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class, who owned the means of production, according to Marx.
Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Marx’s idea that the working class would hold political power after overthrowing the bourgeoisie.
Vladimir Lenin: The leader of the Bolsheviks and the architect of the Russian Revolution, who later became the first head of the Soviet state.
Bolsheviks: A socialist faction led by Lenin that seized power in Russia during the October Revolution of 1917.
Czar Nicholas II: The last Russian Emperor, whose abdication in 1917 marked the end of the Romanov dynasty and the start of the Russian Revolution.
Romanov: The Russian royal family that ruled from 1613 until 1917, when they were overthrown during the Russian Revolution.
Provisional Government: The temporary government established after the abdication of Czar Nicholas II, which was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October 1917.
Rasputin: A Russian mystic who had significant influence over the Russian royal family, particularly Tsarina Alexandra, due to his perceived healing powers.
Bread, Peace, and Land: The slogan used by the Bolsheviks to gain popular support during the Russian Revolution, promising food, an end to war, and land redistribution.
Red October: The October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks took control of Russia and overthrew the Provisional Government.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: The 1918 treaty between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers, ending Russia’s involvement in World War I.
Naval Blockade: A military strategy to block the enemy’s trade and supplies through sea routes, used during World War I to cripple the Central Powers.
Word War I (1914–1918) and Key Battles
Battle of Jutland: A major naval battle in 1916 between the British Royal Navy and the German Imperial Navy, which resulted in no decisive victory but showed the strength of the British navy.
President Woodrow Wilson: The 28th president of the United States who led the country through World War I and outlined the Fourteen Points, advocating for a just and lasting peace.
Zimmerman Note: A secret telegram sent by Germany to Mexico in 1917, proposing a military alliance against the U.S., which contributed to the U.S. entering World War I.
End of World War I
Armistice: The agreement to stop fighting, signed on November 11, 1918, marking the end of World War I.
Battle of Amiens: A decisive Allied offensive in 1918 that marked the beginning of the end for the German Empire in World War I.
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Cold War: The geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, marked by ideological conflict, military rivalry, and proxy wars.
Iron Curtain: A term used by Winston Churchill to describe the boundary separating Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe from the democratic countries of Western Europe during the Cold War.
Containment: A U.S. policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism during the Cold War, primarily through military, political, and economic means.
Truman Doctrine: A U.S. policy, initiated by President Harry Truman in 1947, to provide aid to countries threatened by communism, especially in Europe and Asia.
Marshall Plan: A U.S. initiative to aid Western European countries economically after World War II, aimed at preventing the spread of communism.
United Nations: An international organization formed in 1945 to promote peace and cooperation among nations, with bodies such as the Security Council responsible for maintaining international security.
Security Council (United Nations): A key organ of the UN responsible for maintaining international peace and security, consisting of five permanent members and ten rotating members.
Non-aligned Movement: A group of countries that chose not to align with either the U.S. or Soviet Union during the Cold War, advocating for independence and peace.
President Sukarno (Indonesia): The first president of Indonesia, a key figure in the country's independence from the Netherlands and a leader in the Non-aligned Movement.
Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana): The first president of Ghana, a leading advocate for African independence and unity, and a significant figure in the Non-aligned Movement.
NATO: A military alliance formed in 1949 between the U.S. and its European allies to counter Soviet influence during the Cold War.
Warsaw Pact: A military alliance of communist countries in Eastern Europe, led by the Soviet Union, established in 1955 in response to NATO.
Eastern Bloc: The Soviet-dominated countries of Eastern Europe, including East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, during the Cold War.
Churchill: Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister during World War II and the early Cold War, famous for coining the term "Iron Curtain."
Stalin: Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s to 1953, responsible for the expansion of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
Truman: Harry S. Truman, the U.S. president who oversaw the beginning of the Cold War, including the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan.
Nuclear Weapons (first atomic bombs dropped): Explosive devices powered by nuclear reactions. The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japan in 1945, ending World War II.
Manhattan Project: The U.S. government project during World War II that developed the first nuclear bombs.
Kiloton: A unit of measurement for the explosive power of nuclear weapons, equivalent to 1,000 tons of TNT.
Megaton: A unit of measurement for nuclear explosions, equivalent to 1 million tons of TNT.
Nuclear Arms Race: The competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to develop more powerful nuclear weapons during the Cold War.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): A Cold War concept where both superpowers had enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other, deterring both from initiating nuclear war.
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): A long-range missile designed to deliver nuclear warheads, a critical component of the Cold War arms race.
Proxy War: A war in which opposing powers support rival factions or countries in a third-party conflict, often during the Cold War (e.g., Korean War, Vietnam War).
Korean War: A war (1950–1953) between North Korea (supported by the Soviet Union and China) and South Korea (supported by the U.S. and UN), ending in a stalemate.
Suez Intervention: A 1956 military operation by Israel, the U.K., and France against Egypt following its nationalization of the Suez Canal. It ended with international pressure forcing a ceasefire.
Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt): Egyptian president known for his role in the Suez Crisis and efforts to modernize Egypt, along with his leadership in Arab nationalism.
Sputnik: The first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, sparking the space race between the U.S. and USSR.
Yuri Gagarin: The first human to orbit Earth, a Soviet cosmonaut, in 1961.
“We choose to go to the moon, not because it is easy, but because it is hard”: John F. Kennedy's famous speech declaring the U.S. goal to land a man on the moon, emphasizing the challenges of space exploration.
Cuban Missile Crisis: A 1962 Cold War confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba, bringing the world close to nuclear war.
Fidel Castro: The communist leader of Cuba who led the Cuban Revolution and governed Cuba from 1959 until his retirement in 2008.
Nikita Khrushchev: The Soviet leader who succeeded Stalin and oversaw the Cuban Missile Crisis and the de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union.
Leonid Brezhnev: The Soviet leader who succeeded Khrushchev, known for his policies of repression in Eastern Europe, such as the suppression of the Prague Spring.
Brezhnev Doctrine: A Soviet policy asserting the right to intervene in the affairs of socialist countries to maintain communist regimes, notably used to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
Prague Spring: A period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia in 1968, crushed by a Soviet-led invasion.
Angolan Civil War: A Cold War proxy war in Angola (1975–2002) involving U.S.-backed anti-communist forces and Soviet-backed Marxist rebels.
Mao Zedong: The founding father of the People's Republic of China and the leader of the Chinese Communist Party. He ruled China from 1949 until his death in 1976, implementing significant political and economic reforms, including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
Great Leap Forward: A failed economic and social campaign initiated by Mao Zedong in 1958 aimed at rapidly transforming China from an agrarian society into an industrialized socialist state. It resulted in widespread famine and the deaths of millions.
White Revolution (Iran): A series of reforms initiated by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in the 1960s to modernize Iran's economy and society, including land redistribution, industrialization, and the granting of women's suffrage. It led to significant social changes but also contributed to opposition to the monarchy.
Land Redistribution: The process of reallocating land, particularly in post-colonial and revolutionary contexts, to promote more equitable ownership and economic opportunity, often used as a policy by communist regimes or during decolonization efforts.
Mohandas Gandhi: A leader of the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule. Gandhi advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience, which played a pivotal role in India gaining independence in 1947.
Indian National Congress (India): A political party founded in 1885 that became the principal organization advocating for Indian independence from British rule. It later became a dominant political party in India after independence.
Jawaharlal Nehru: The first Prime Minister of independent India, Nehru was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress. His policies focused on modernization, industrialization, and social reforms.
Muslim League (India): A political party in India founded in 1906, which played a key role in the creation of Pakistan in 1947. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocated for the establishment of a separate state for Muslims.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah: The founder of Pakistan and the leader of the All-India Muslim League. Jinnah played a critical role in the establishment of Pakistan as a separate nation for Muslims in 1947.
Partition of India: The division of British India in 1947 into two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, based on religious lines, leading to large-scale migration, violence, and the displacement of millions.
Pakistan: A country that was created in 1947 as a separate nation for Muslims, carved out of British India. It originally consisted of West Pakistan (modern-day Pakistan) and East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh).
Kashmir: A region located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, contested between India, Pakistan, and China. The dispute over Kashmir has led to several conflicts since the partition of India.
Israel: A country established in 1948 as a homeland for Jews, following the end of British rule in Palestine and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration. It has been the focal point of conflict in the Middle East, particularly with its Arab neighbors.
Balfour Declaration: A 1917 statement by the British government expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, a move that contributed to tensions between Jews and Arabs in the region.
Mandate System: A system established by the League of Nations after World War I, under which former Ottoman territories were administered by European powers (such as Britain and France) as mandates, until they were deemed ready for self-rule.
Francisco Franco (Spain): A Spanish military leader who rose to power during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). He established a fascist dictatorship in Spain, ruling from 1939 until his death in 1975.
Augusto Pinochet (Chile): A Chilean military dictator who came to power after a coup in 1973, overthrowing the democratically elected government of Salvador Allende. Pinochet's regime was marked by human rights abuses, including torture and executions of political opponents.
Ho Chi Minh: The communist revolutionary leader who played a central role in the struggle for Vietnamese independence from French colonial rule. He later became the president of North Vietnam, leading the country during the Vietnam War.
Nelson Mandela: A South African anti-apartheid revolutionary and the first black president of South Africa. He was imprisoned for 27 years due to his activism and was instrumental in ending apartheid and promoting reconciliation in South Africa.
Apartheid: A policy of racial segregation and discrimination enforced by the South African government from 1948 to the early 1990s, systematically privileging white South Africans and disenfranchising black South Africans.
Al Qaeda: A transnational Islamist extremist group founded by Osama bin Laden in the late 1980s, responsible for various terrorist attacks, including the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States.
Osama bin Laden: The founder of Al-Qaeda and the mastermind behind the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States. He was killed by U.S. Navy SEALs in 2011.
Mikhail Gorbachev: The last leader of the Soviet Union, who initiated key reforms in the 1980s, including glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which contributed to the end of the Cold War and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.
Perestroika: A series of political and economic reforms introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, aimed at restructuring the Soviet economy and political system. These reforms eventually contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Glasnost: A policy of greater openness and transparency in the Soviet Union, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s. It allowed for more freedom of speech, the press, and political expression, which led to increased public criticism of the government.
Berlin Wall: A barrier constructed in 1961 by the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) to separate East and West Berlin, symbolizing the division of communist and capitalist Europe during the Cold War. The wall fell in 1989.
Boris Yeltsin: The first president of the Russian Federation after the collapse of the Soviet Union. He oversaw Russia’s transition from communism to a market economy, though his tenure was marked by economic instability and political challenges.
