Lecture 7: Bias and Underrepresentation in Media and Technology / Cultural Identity Development

PSYC480A Multicultural

Geena Davis Institute’s 2020 Report on Children’s TV Shows

45% have female lead, female characters wore more revealing outfits, male characters more violent, in STEM the male outnumbered 2:1, mostly skinny, essentially no disabilitity or LGBTQ rep.

Santoniccol et al. (2023)

Examined the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization

Three Types of Gender Stereotypes

Descriptive: Beliefs about how they are

Prescriptive: beliefs about how they should be

Proscriptive: beliefs about how genders should not be

Objectification

Occurs when a person is treated as an object rather than a full human being

Sexualization

Occurs when a person’s value is primarily based on their sexual appeal or behavior

Women are often stereotypically portrayed as

focused on beauty and physical appearance along with being passive, nurturing, or dependent on others. May also be side characters, love interests, or need rescue

Men are often stereotypically portrayed as

Active, dominant, goal oriented, skilled, rational, and independent

Saleem et al. (2026)

Black Americans saw improvements in representation

Natives or Middle Eastern were underrepresented or negatively portrayed

Low visibility + negativity = worse attitudes

Social Media Use AMong Tweens/Tenns (2021 Common Sense Census)

Tweens spend about 5 hours, Teens about 8 hours a day

How Underrepresentation or Bias Representation Affects Children

Internalized societal expectations and values

Development of stereotypes and prejudice

Negative intergroup relations

Underrepresentation or negative depictions of their own groups can have negative impact on their identity, self concept, and aspirations

Biases in Tech

Exist in algorithms and AI because they were created by humans

Tripartite Model of Personal Identity

Understanding that our self-perceptions are made up of:

• Unique, individual aspects

• Aspects of groups to which we belong

• Universal aspects of human beings

Cross’ Model (African American Identity Development)

Pre-encounter stage

Encounter stage

Immersion/emersion stage

Internalization stage

Pre-Encounter Stage

Lack of understanding about race beyond basic skin color

Devaluing “blackness” and idealizing “whiteness”

Encounter Stage

Significant event that cause individuals to reevaluate their attitudes about race.

Realization of racism and discrimination against their own racial group

Emotions of anger and guilt may be experienced

Immersion-Emersion Stage

Reversed attitudes (idealizing blackness)

Withdrawal from the dominant group/culture

More of a continuum than a single stage

As individuals move closer to the emersion side, they realize there may be good and bad in any race

Internalization Stage

Feeling positive and secure about their African American/Black Identity, allowing them to accept other cultures

Helm’s Model (European American Identity Development)

Contact

Disintegration

Reintegration

Pseudo-Independence

Immersion/Emersion

Autonomy

Contact

Timid and uncertain about race

Unaware of racism/prejudice/privilege

Lack of experience with people from other backgrounds

May profess to be color blind (i dont see color)

Disintegration

Increased contact with people from diverse backgrounds

Realize that their experiences and those of people of color may be different

May experience guilt, anxiety, and helplessness

Uncomfortable status

Reintegration

Retreating to their comfort zone to resolve conflicts (e.g., passively or actively supporting white superiority)

Blaming the disadvantaged for their status/challenges

Pseudo-Independence

First phase of nonracist European American identity

Distance themselves from their racial group

Acknowledge racism; however, may believe that it is the people of color who should change

Immersion/Emersion

Learn more about their own culture; form more positive white identity while assuming personal responsibility for racism

Begin to feel comfortable being White and non-racist

Autonomy

Positive White Identity accomplished

Acknowledge their privilege and work to combat discrimination (not just racism but other forms of oppression)

Personal Identity Stage

Identity based on personal factors not on group membership

Choice of Group Categorization Stage

Pressure to choose one identity

Davenport (2026)

Asian White, Latino White, and Black White on how they choose to identify

Enmeshment/Denial Stage

Feeling guilty for choosing one group over another

Appreciation Stage

Exploring the other racial identity that was initially ignored

Integration Stage

Realization that embracing both races/ethnicities is beneficial

Critique of the Stage Models

Acceptance stage as the final stage and assume the final stage is the healthiest

Cass 1979

Identity model for individuals who fall along the LGBTQ continuum

Paradox of Upward Mobility

can be costly for low SES racial/ethnic minority students

Higher SES usually predicts better psychological and physical health

Status-Based Identity Uncertainty

Conflicting beliefs about social standing

Conflict between past and future status

Negative outcomes

• lower self esteem

• lower life satisfaction

• reduced academic motivation and performance

College as a Period of Upward Mobility

Can trigger status-based identity uncertainty

Challenges

• social identity: fitting in with peers

• narrative identity: reconciling home and college life

• future identity: envisioning future self

Predictors of Status Uncertainty

Discrimination: racial/ethnic and SES based

Cultural mismatch: interdependent norms vs college’s independent norms

Both lead to

• lower belonging

• struggle reconciling past and present experiences

Cultural Intersection and Minority Students

Low SES racial/ethnic minority students face dual threats

Status-based identity

Ethnic/racial identity

Consequences of Status Uncertainty

Psychological: lower self-esteem, life satisfaction

Academic: lower motivation, reduced efficacy, poorer grades

Social: difficulty forming college identity, low sense of belonging