Subterranean Roots Pharmacognosy

Vocabulary flashcards detailing botanical origin, active constituents, microscopic features, tests, pharmacological actions, and toxicity of medicinal subterranean roots.

Root (Botanical Definition)

The plant axis that grows vertically downwards into the soil away from light.

Liquorice (Sweet Wood)

The dried peeled or unpeeled root and rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra var. typica (Spanish Liquorice), Glycyrrhiza glabra var. glandulifera (Russian Liquorice), or other varieties of Glycyrrhiza glabra, belonging to the family Leguminosae (Fabaceae).

Crystal Sheath (Liquorice)

A characteristic diagnostic fragment in powdered liquorice consisting of a thick-walled lignified fibre with a narrow lumen and acute apex, enveloped by parenchymatous cells each containing a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate.

Glycyrrhizin

A triterpenoidal oleanane saponin-like glycoside ($5\text{--}7\%$) occurring as the sodium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic (glycyrrhizic) acid, which is $50\text{ times}$ sweeter than sugar.

Glycyrrhizinic Acid

The triterpenoid glycoside in liquorice that upon hydrolysis loses its sweet taste and yields the aglycone glycyrrhetic acid (glycyrrhetin) plus $2\text{ molecules}$ of glucuronic acid.

Glycyramarin

A bitter principle abundant in the outer tissue of liquorice that is responsible for the bitterness of the unpeeled commercial drug.

Liquorice Sulfuric Acid Identity Test

A chemical identity test where mixing powdered liquorice with $1\text{--}2\text{ drops}$ of sulphuric acid ($66\%\,v/v$) produces an orange-red colour.

Deglycyrrhizinized Liquorice (DGL)

A processed liquorice fraction administered as $380\,\text{mg}$ chewable tablets between or $20\text{ minutes}$ before meals ($2\text{--}4\text{ times daily}$) that stimulates mucosal defense mechanisms to treat ulcers without the mineralocorticoid side effects of glycyrrhizin.

Pseudoaldosteronism (Liquorice-Induced)

A condition resulting from glycyrrhetic acid binding to kidney aldosterone receptors and inhibiting $5\text{-}\beta\text{-reductase}$ and $11\text{-}\beta\text{-hydroxydehydrogenase}$, causing accumulation of cortisol and aldosterone, $\text{Na}^+$ retention (hypernatremia), $\text{K}^+$ loss (hypokalemia), and severe hypertension.

Glycyrrhetic Acid Hydrogen Succinate (GAHS)

A disodium salt derivative of glycyrrhetic acid used for oral and orofacial herpes infection that also highly enhances the nasal absorption of insulin at a concentration of $1\%$.

Ipecacuanha Root (Origin)

The dried root or root and rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rio or Brazilian Ipecacuanha) or Cephaelis acuminata (Cartagena, Nicaragua, or Panama Ipecacuanha), belonging to the family Rubiaceae.

Ipecacuanha (Sensory Characters)

Features a faint characteristic odour that is irritant and sternutatory (induces sneezing) when in fine powder, alongside a bitter, acrid taste.

Emetine

An isoquinoline alkaloid from ipecacuanha that acts as an expectorant in small doses and is administered via intramuscular injection as emetine HCl to treat amoebic dysentery and amoebic hepatitis.

Cephaline

An isoquinoline alkaloid in ipecacuanha that acts predominantly as a powerful emetic in large doses, possessing stronger emetic properties than emetine.

Emetic Mechanism of Ipecacuanha

Produces emesis via a dual mechanism: locally by irritating the gastrointestinal mucosa, and centrally by stimulating the Chemoreceptor Trigger Zone (CTZ) to activate vomiting centers in the medulla.

Potassium Chlorate Test (for Emetine)

An identity test where powdered ipecacuanha digested with concentrated $\text{HCl}$ and filtered yields a yellowish colour that changes to orange and finally red within an hour upon addition of potassium chlorate crystals.

Gentian Root (Origin)

The dried fermented root and rhizome of Gentiana lutea, belonging to the family Gentianaceae, indigenous to central Europe.

Amarogentin

A bitter iridoid glycoside found in gentian root, recognized as one of the most bitter compounds known.

Gentianine

A monoterpene alkaloid found in Gentiana lutea (possibly an artifact formed by ammonia addition during isolation) that exhibits anti-inflammatory and hypotensive effects.

Gentian Root (Contraindications)

Contraindicated in patients with gastric ulcer due to its stimulant effect on gastric secretions.

Jalap Root (Origin)

The dried tuberous root of Ipomea purga, belonging to the family Convolvulaceae, indigenous to Mexico and cultivated in India and Jamaica.

Convolvulin (Jalapin)

The main constituent ($\approx 90\%$) of the ether-insoluble fraction of jalap glycosidal resin ($9\text{--}18\%$), acting as a powerful stimulant laxative and hydragogue cathartic by irritating intestinal mucosa and increasing prostaglandin-driven fluid secretion.

Rauwolfia Root (Indian Snake Root)

The dried rhizomes and roots of Rauwolfia serpentina, belonging to the family Apocynaceae, indigenous to India, Pakistan, Burma, and Thailand.

Reserpine

An indole alkaloid from Rauwolfia serpentina that reduces blood pressure via sympatholytic action and is used in neuropsychiatric disorders; it does not initiate breast cancer but may promote breast cancer from previously initiated cells.

Ajmaline

An indole alkaloid obtained from Rauwolfia serpentina with quinidine-like antiarrhythmic properties, marketed in Japan for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia.

Aconite Root (Wolf's Bane Root)

The dried roots of Aconitum napellus, belonging to the family Ranunculaceae, native to Central Europe and cultivated in England.

Aconitine

A highly potent, fast-acting diterpene ester alkaloid from Aconitum napellus that causes systemic paralysis, nausea, hypotension, arrhythmia, shock, and death; its early toxicity can be treated with hydrocortisone.

Ginseng Root (Panax ginseng)

The dried roots of Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng), belonging to the family Araliaceae, recognized by its characteristically branched, human-like root morphology.

Ginsenosides

Triterpenoidal saponins in ginseng classified into pentacyclic oleanane and tetracyclic dammarane types (protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol) that promote protein synthesis, increase body weight, and stimulate alcohol dehydrogenase.

Panaxans

High molecular weight polysaccharides in Panax ginseng that exhibit antifatigue properties and display hypoglycemic effects in Type II diabetes by stimulating insulin secretion.

Majonoside-R2

A potent antistress and antioxidant ginsenoside isolated from Panax vietnamensis, establishing it as the most potent antistress species of the genus Panax.

Adaptogen (Ginseng Definition)

An agent that elicits an unspecific enhancement of the body's natural resistance to exogenous physical and psychological stressors.

Ginseng Adverse Effects

Toxic reactions resulting from long-term administration ($3\,\text{g/kg}$) including hypertension, nervousness, sleeplessness, and morning diarrhoea, as well as dizziness and poor concentration upon high-dose use for $3\text{ years}$.