19th century quiz 1 v2

Atlantic Revolution Paradigm (Late 18th Century)

Historiographical framework (Palmer/Godechot) framing late 18th-century revolutions as an interconnected democratic movement across Europe and the Americas.

Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834)

French aristocrat and "Hero of Two Worlds" who held major military commands in both the American and French Revolutions.

Thomas Paine (1737–1809)

Transatlantic radical author of Common Sense and Rights of Man who served as an elected deputy in the French National Convention.

Seven Years' War (1756–1763)

Global Anglo-Prussian vs. Franco-Austrian conflict that redrew colonial maps and triggered imperial debt crises across Europe.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 (1756)

Strategic realignment prior to the Seven Years' War where Britain allied with Prussia and France allied with Austria.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Peace settlement ending the Seven Years' War in which France ceded Canada and Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain.

Leyes de Indias (1680)

Royal compilation establishing that Spanish American territories were legal kingdoms attached to the Castilian Crown, not mere colonies.

Nueva Planta Decrees (1707–1716)

Centralizing statutes imposing Castilian law, taxation, and institutions onto the former Crown of Aragon.

Bourbon Reforms (Late 18th Century)

Administrative overhaul under Charles III and José de Gálvez introducing intendancies and expanding transatlantic trade.

Cabildo Abierto

Extraordinary open town council meeting convened by Spanish American municipalities during political emergencies.

Corregidores & Alcaldes Mayores

Traditional local Spanish colonial administrators whose judicial and financial powers were replaced by intendancy subdelegates.

Casa de la Contratación

Spanish royal agency in Seville and Cádiz that regulated transatlantic imperial trade until abolished in 1790.

Grand Vizier & The Porte

Chief executive minister and central imperial government office of the Ottoman Empire located in Istanbul.

Şeyhülislam & Ulema

Supreme religious authority and council of Islamic legal scholars empowered to legitimize or reject Ottoman imperial decrees.

Janissaries and Sipahi

Elite traditional Ottoman infantry (Janissaries) and cavalry (Sipahi) corps that fiercely resisted Western-style military modernization.

Phanariots

Wealthy Istanbul Greek families appointed by the Porte to govern the tributary principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia.

Ayan & Malikane

Ottoman provincial notables (Ayan) who raised regional armies and built local power via life-term tax farms (Malikane).

Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774)

Russo-Turkish peace treaty forcing the Ottoman Empire to cede Crimea and grant Russian shipping access to the Black Sea.

Treaty of Jassy (1792)

Treaty concluding the second Russo-Turkish War that consolidated Russian territorial control along the Black Sea coast.

Assembly of Notables (1787–1788)

Handpicked assembly of French elites called by Louis XVI that rejected royal tax reforms and forced the summoning of the Estates General.

Réveillon Riot (1789)

Violent Parisian worker uprising in Faubourg Saint-Antoine triggered by rumors of wage cuts amid soaring bread prices.

Cahiers de Doléances (1789)

Official registers of local community grievances compiled across France to guide elected deputies at the Estates General.

Estates General (1789)

Assembly of France's three orders (Clergy, Nobility, Third Estate) summoned at Versailles for the first time since 1614.

National Assembly (1789)

Parliamentary body formed by Third Estate deputies declaring themselves the sole legitimate representatives of the French nation.

Tennis Court Oath (1789)

Sworn commitment by National Assembly deputies never to disband until establishing a written constitution for France.

Great Fear (1789)

Panic-driven peasant wave across rural France that resulted in the ransacking of châteaux and burning of manorial debt rolls.

Night of August 4 (1789)

National Assembly session in which deputies officially abolished feudalism and aristocratic tax privileges.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

Foundational revolutionary charter proclaiming universal liberty, legal equality, and popular sovereignty.

October Days (1789)

Armed march of Parisian women to Versailles that compelled Louis XVI and the National Assembly to relocate to Paris.

Active Citizens (1791)

Category in the French Constitution of 1791 restricting full voting rights exclusively to men over 25 paying a direct tax threshold.

Flight to Varennes (1791)

Failed escape attempt by Louis XVI that destroyed public trust in the constitutional monarchy and accelerated republican activism.

Vincent Ogé's Revolt (1790)

Rebellion of free people of color in Saint-Domingue demanding equal political rights, brutally suppressed by white planters.

Haitian Slave Uprising (1791)

Mass insurrection of enslaved workers in Saint-Domingue's Northern Plain that launched the Haitian Revolution.

Civil Commissioner Sonthonax (1793)

French commissioner who unilaterally emancipated slaves in northern Saint-Domingue to secure insurgent military support.

French Abolition Decree (1794)

Statute passed by the National Convention abolishing slavery across all territories of the French Republic.

Revolutionary Tribunal (1793)

Special emergency court established in Paris to try suspected counter-revolutionaries and political traitors.

Law of Suspects (1793)

Terror-era decree mandating the immediate arrest of anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution.

Battle of Fleurus (1794)

Decisive French military victory over coalition forces securing Belgium and ending immediate foreign invasion threats.

Thermidorian Reaction (1794)

Coup and execution of Maximilien Robespierre that dismantled the Reign of Terror and restored moderate parliamentary rule.

Vendéens and Chouans (1793–1796)

Royalist and Catholic peasant rebellions in western France triggered primarily by revolutionary military conscription.

Peasants' War (1798)

Counter-revolutionary peasant uprising in French-occupied Belgium against mandatory military conscription.

Neapolitan Republic (1799)

Short-lived French sister republic in Naples established by liberal intellectuals like Eleonora Fonseca Pimentel.

Sanfedisti (1799)

Peasant counter-revolutionary "Army of the Holy Faith" organized by Cardinal Ruffo that brutally overthrew the Neapolitan Republic.

Vincenzo Cuoco & "Passive Revolution" (1799)

Neapolitan intellectual concept describing political transformations imposed from above by foreign armies without popular mass participation.

Coup of 18 Fructidor Year V (1797)

Executive purge in which the French Directory used military force to annul legislative election victories of royalist deputies.

Coup of 22 Floréal Year VI (1798)

Parliamentary purge in which the Directory invalidated the election of radical Jacobin deputies.

Coup of 18 Brumaire (1799)

Overthrow of the Directory orchestrated by Sieyès and Napoleon Bonaparte to establish the French Consulate.

Toussaint Louverture (1743–1803)

Formerly enslaved general who unified Saint-Domingue as Governor-for-Life before his arrest by Bonaparte's expeditionary force.

Description de l'Égypte (1809–1828)

Comprehensive 24-volume scientific and historical survey compiled by scholars accompanying Bonaparte's 1798 Egyptian expedition.

Mehmed Ali (r. 1805–1848)

Ottoman-Albanian officer who eliminated the Mamluks in 1811 and built a modern Egyptian state with a conscript army.

Nizam-ı Cedid (1793–1807)

European-style "New Order" army and taxation system created by Sultan Selim III, which collapsed following Janissary resistance.

İrad-ı Cedid (1793)

Dedicated central treasury created by Sultan Selim III to fund the salaries and equipment of the Nizam-ı Cedid army.

Plebiscite of June 1804 (1804)

Constitutional referendum that ratified Napoleon Bonaparte's elevation to hereditary Emperor of the French.

Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)

International conference of European powers convened to restore order, dynastic legitimacy, and a balance of power after Napoleon's defeat.

Final Act of Vienna (1815)

General treaty codifying post-Napoleonic European boundaries and creating buffer states like the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian Chancellor and chief architect of the Restoration system who suppressed liberal and nationalist revolutions.

Tsar Alexander I

Russian monarch who authored the Holy Alliance and expanded Russian territory by acquiring most of Poland in personal union.

Lord Castlereagh

British Foreign Secretary who engineered the Quadruple Alliance while opposing military intervention in foreign domestic affairs.

Prince Talleyrand

Skillful French diplomat who restored defeated France as an equal major power during the Vienna negotiations.

Holy Alliance (1815)

Pact signed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia committing to govern in accordance with Christian principles and suppress revolutions.

Quadruple Alliance & Concert of Europe (1815)

Diplomatic framework between Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia establishing periodic congresses to preserve European stability.

Charter of 1814 (1814)

Constitutional document "granted" by King Louis XVIII preserving revolutionary civil equality while concentrating executive sovereignty in the Crown.

Chamber of Peers & Chamber of Deputies (1814)

Bicameral French Restoration legislature consisting of king-appointed peers and deputies elected by a wealthy taxpaying franchise.

White Terror (1815–1816)

Wave of royalist violent reprisals, legal purges, and executions targeting Bonapartists and Jacobins across southern France.

Société des Missions de France (1814)

Catholic organization that staged over 1,500 parish revivals and public cross-plantings to re-evangelize post-revolutionary France.

Ultramontanism (19th Century)

Conservative Catholic theological movement articulated by Joseph de Maistre asserting papal spiritual supremacy over secular monarchies.

Demobilization & Half-Pay Crisis (Post-1815)

Post-1815 military unrest caused by widespread purges and pay cuts among veteran Napoleonic officers across France, Spain, and Italy.

Pronunciamiento

Distinctive Spanish military revolt mechanism where officers declared against government policies to force constitutional change without overthrowing the monarch.

Rafael del Riego (1820)

Spanish colonel whose mutiny at Cabezas de San Juan compelled King Ferdinand VII to restore the liberal Constitution of Cádiz.

Constitution of Cádiz (1812/1820)

Liberal Spanish constitution establishing a single-chamber parliament under near-universal male suffrage while keeping Catholicism as the sole state religion.

Carlsbad Decrees (1819)

Repressive measures instituted by Metternich banning student nationalist associations and enforcing strict university censorship in the German Confederation.

Preliminary Protocol of Troppau (1820)

Agreement among conservative powers asserting a collective right of armed intervention against states altered by liberal revolutions.

Congress of Verona (1822)

International summit that granted France a diplomatic mandate to invade Spain and destroy its constitutional government.

Battle of Trocadero (1823)

Key French military victory in Spain that destroyed the liberal regime and restored Ferdinand VII as absolute monarch.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

United States foreign policy declaration warning European monarchies against military intervention or recolonization in the Western Hemisphere.

Four Sergeants of La Rochelle (1822)

French soldiers executed for participating in secret Carbonari political plots against the Restoration monarchy.

Filiki Etaireia (1814)

Secret Greek nationalist organization founded in Odessa that organized and initiated the 1821 Greek War of Independence.

Alexander Ypsilantis (1821)

Leader of the Filiki Etaireia who issued the "Fight for Faith and Country" manifesto launching the Greek uprising.

Ali Pasha of Ioannina (1820)

Autonomous Ottoman governor of Epirus whose open rebellion in 1820 tied down imperial troops at the start of the Greek revolt.

Philhellenism (1820s)

Transnational European cultural and political support movement for Greek independence inspired by Romanticism and classical antiquity.

Battle of Navarino (1827)

Decisive naval engagement where combined British, French, and Russian fleets destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian navy, securing Greek independence.

Auspicious Incident (1826)

Sultan Mahmud II's forceful suppression and permanent disbandment of the Janissary corps, clearing the way for modernizing reforms.

King Otto of Greece (1832)

Bavarian prince selected by European powers to serve as the first absolute monarch of independent Greece.

Sacrilege Law (1825)

Ultra-royalist French statute under King Charles X imposing the death penalty for thefts or desecrations in Catholic churches.

Law of the "Milliard" (1825)

Restoration French legislation granting one billion francs in compensation to émigré nobles whose lands were confiscated during the Revolution.

French Invasion of Algiers (1830)

Colonial military expedition launched by Charles X to rally domestic political support prior to parliamentary elections.

Trois Glorieuses (1830)

Three-day revolution in Paris that overthrew King Charles X and established the constitutional July Monarchy under Louis-Philippe.

Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1830)

Uprising in Brussels that broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands to establish an independent, constitutional Belgian state.