Philosophy test 1

What philosophical question should we ask about intelligence?

We should ask, "What kind of thing is intelligence?" rather than treating it as one factor.

What does "correlation ≠ causation" mean?

A relationship between two things does not prove that one thing causes the other.

Why is correlation not enough to explain behavior?

Two things can be associated without one actually causing the other.

What does "structure ≠ function" mean?

A difference in physical structure does not automatically mean a difference in function.

Why does "structure ≠ function" matter when studying the brain?

Different physical structures can potentially perform the same function.

What is multiple realizability?

The idea that different physical structures can be used to realize the same function.

How does multiple realizability challenge the idea that structure determines function?

If different structures perform the same function, function is not identified with one specific structure.

What analogy is used to explain multiple realizability?

Different computer models can work the same way even though their structures differ.

What is localization?

The idea that different parts of the brain have different functions.

Why does localization not completely explain behavior?

Finding a brain area associated with a function does not fully explain the behavior.

What is brain plasticity?

The ability of other brain parts to take over a function when damaged.

How does brain plasticity challenge strict localization?

If another area can take over a function, it is not limited to one area.

Why is plasticity philosophically important?

It shows that brain structure and function are not always fixed or perfectly matched.

What do the notes say about our understanding of plasticity?

Plasticity is not fully understood.

What is the philosophical problem with explaining behavior only through brain structure?

A brain difference may correlate with behavior without being sufficient to cause it.

What disagreement do experts have about male and female brains?

Some experts say there is no difference; others cite areas like the hippocampus/limbic system.

Why are claims about male and female brain differences treated cautiously?

Neuroanatomical differences are not sufficient by themselves to explain differences in behavior.

What is the hippocampus associated with in the notes?

Memory.

What brain structures are mentioned in discussions of possible male/female differences?

The limbic system, hippocampus, and amygdala.

What do the notes say about women and recovery from brain trauma?

Women may have a greater chance of bouncing back from brain trauma than men.

Why is the claim about women recovering from brain trauma presented cautiously?

The notes say it could potentially be disproved one day.

What philosophical lesson comes from the possibility that a scientific claim could be disproved?

Scientific claims should be treated as revisable rather than permanently certain.

What is lateral science?

The study of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

What historical mistake about intelligence is mentioned?

In the early 20th century, intelligence was thought to be caused by frontal brain areas.

What assumption about males was connected to early theories about intelligence?

Males were thought to be more developed in the relevant brain area.

What happened to theories about where intelligence was located?

The proposed location changed, eventually being associated with the occipital lobe.

What philosophical lesson does the history of intelligence localization demonstrate?

Scientific explanations change over time and should not automatically be treated as final.

What is Gall's theory in the context of these notes?

A theory from the first quarter of the 19th century concerning the brain.

Why is Gall's theory relevant to the history of intelligence?

It represents part of the historical development connecting intelligence with the brain.

Who is mentioned in connection with the history of intelligence testing?

Binet.

What were some pragmatic purposes of intelligence testing?

Predicting academic performance and providing remediation.

Why is the pragmatic history of intelligence testing philosophically important?

It shows intelligence tests developed for practical purposes, not measuring one single natural object.

Why should intelligence not automatically be treated as one measurable thing?

We must question what intelligence is instead of assuming it is a single factor.

What is the role of experiments in determining causation?

Experiments determine whether changing one factor produces a change in another.

Why can experimental evidence be more useful than simple correlation?

Experiments investigate whether a relationship is causal rather than merely correlated.

What is the strength of an analogy?

It depends on whether relevant similarities support the argument.

Why isn't every analogy equally strong?

An analogy is only strong when the similarities used actually support the argument.

How can social expectations affect behavior?

People may follow established norms because they see others doing the same.

How can traditions continue over time?

People continue established patterns because they become accepted as normal.

Why can social traditions be mistaken for biological differences?

Consistent behavior can appear natural even when maintained through social expectations.

What example of changing social roles appears in the notes?

Men staying home and raising children.

What philosophical distinction is suggested between biological and social explanations?

Phenomena may be biological or influenced by social context, norms, and expectations.

What do the notes say about sex?

The notes describe sex as biologically superficial.

How do the notes distinguish sex from gender?

The biological account of sex does not simply apply to gender.

What genetic criterion for male sex is mentioned?

Having XY chromosomes means you are male genotypically.

What does phenotypic mean in the notes?

It refers to how hormones and the body develop or grow.

What does self-identity mean in the notes?

How people identify themselves and how they feel about being male or female.

What example is given for self-identity?

Someone who is female but feels male.

Why is "brain sex" philosophically relevant?

It asks whether biological brain characteristics are enough to explain identity or behavior.

How can social expectations complicate biological explanations?

Behavioral differences may partly result from social expectations rather than biology alone.

Why is the nature/nurture issue complicated?

Behavior involves both biological and social influences, making simple explanations inadequate.

Why doesn't observing a behavioral difference prove a biological cause?

The difference could result from social expectations, environment, or other factors.

How does brain plasticity relate to nature versus nurture?

Plasticity shows brain function can change, complicating biological predetermination.

How does multiple realizability relate to nature versus nurture?

It shows that the same function can potentially arise from different physical structures.

How are correlation, plasticity, and multiple realizability connected?

All three challenge the idea that brain structure directly determines behavior or function.

Why is "brain difference = behavior difference" an inadequate argument?

A physical brain difference does not automatically establish a functional or behavioral difference.

What question should be asked before claiming that a brain difference causes behavior?

Is the brain difference actually causal, or is it only correlated with behavior?

What question should be asked before treating intelligence as a biological object?

What kind of thing is intelligence, and are we mistaking an abstraction for a concrete thing?

What does the history of intelligence theories teach us?

Theories about intelligence and its location in the brain have changed over time.

Why should historical scientific claims be evaluated critically?

Ideas once accepted as explanations can later be replaced by different explanations.

What is the overall philosophical lesson of these notes?

Avoid moving quickly from observed differences to causal explanations regarding brain and behavior.