weimar republic & nazi germany

When did the Weimar Republic begin?

November 1918, after Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated; the republic was proclaimed on 9 November.

Who led the new German government?

Friedrich Ebert of the SPD became the leading figure in the provisional government and later President.

What was the Spartacist uprising?

A communist revolt in Berlin in January 1919, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, seeking a communist revolution.

How did Ebert defeat the Spartacist uprising?

He used the Freikorps, right-wing groups of ex-soldiers. The revolt was crushed and its leaders were murdered.

What was the Freikorps?

Volunteer groups, often made up of ex-soldiers, used by the government to suppress left-wing uprisings.

What did the Weimar Constitution establish?

A democratic republic with an elected President, Chancellor and Reichstag, and votes for men and women over 20.

What was Article 48?

It allowed the President to take emergency measures and rule by decree during a national emergency.

Why was proportional representation a weakness?

It gave parties seats in proportion to votes, often producing many small parties and unstable coalition governments.

When was the Treaty of Versailles signed?

28 June 1919.

What was the War Guilt Clause?

Article 231, which made Germany accept responsibility for causing the war and provided the basis for reparations.

What were Germany's territorial losses?

It lost about 13% of European territory and all overseas colonies; Alsace-Lorraine returned to France and land was ceded to Poland.

What military restrictions were imposed?

The army was limited to 100,000 volunteers; conscription, an air force, submarines and tanks were banned.

How much were reparations set at in 1921?

132 billion gold marks.

Why was Versailles unpopular in Germany?

It was seen as a dictated peace. Germans resented the war guilt, reparations, territorial losses and military restrictions.

Who were the 'November Criminals'?

The politicians who signed the armistice and accepted the peace settlement, whom nationalists accused of betraying Germany.

What was the 'stab-in-the-back' myth?

The false claim that Germany's army had not been defeated but had been betrayed by civilians, socialists and Jews at home.

What was the Kapp Putsch?

A right-wing attempt to overthrow the Weimar government in March 1920, led by Wolfgang Kapp and supported by Freikorps units.

Why did the Kapp Putsch fail?

Trade unions called a general strike; transport and essential services stopped, forcing the putschists to abandon the attempt.

What was the Ruhr occupation?

French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr in January 1923 after Germany fell behind with reparations deliveries.

How did Germany respond to the Ruhr occupation?

The government encouraged passive resistance: workers went on strike and refused to cooperate. The state paid them by printing money.

What caused hyperinflation in 1923?

Printing money to pay striking workers and cover debts during the Ruhr crisis caused the mark to collapse in value.

What were the effects of hyperinflation?

Prices soared, savings and pensions became nearly worthless, and people on fixed incomes suffered. Some debtors benefited.

How was hyperinflation stopped?

Stresemann ended passive resistance and introduced the Rentenmark in November 1923, limiting the money supply.

What was the Munich Putsch?

Hitler's failed attempt to seize power in Munich on 8–9 November 1923.

Why did the Munich Putsch fail?

The army did not support Hitler and police stopped the march. Sixteen Nazis and four police officers were killed.

What happened to Hitler after the Munich Putsch?

He was convicted of treason and sentenced to five years, but served about nine months in Landsberg Prison.

What was Mein Kampf?

Hitler's book, written partly in prison, setting out his racist, nationalist, antisemitic and expansionist ideas.

Who was Gustav Stresemann?

Chancellor in 1923 and Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929; he helped stabilise the economy and improve Germany's international position.

What was the Dawes Plan (1924)?

It reorganised reparations payments and arranged an initial US loan of 800 million gold marks to support German recovery.

How did the Dawes Plan help Germany?

US loans encouraged investment, industry and employment, while reparations payments became more manageable.

Why was the Dawes Plan a weakness?

Germany became dependent on American loans that could be recalled if the US economy weakened.

What was the Locarno Pact (1925)?

Agreements in which Germany accepted its western borders with France and Belgium and agreed to resolve disputes peacefully.

Why was joining the League of Nations in 1926 important?

It showed Germany was being accepted again as a major international power.

What was the Treaty of Berlin (1926)?

A German-Soviet treaty promising neutrality if either country was attacked by a third power.

What was the Young Plan (1929)?

It reduced the total reparations burden and extended the period for payment.

Why were 1924–29 called the Golden Years?

The economy recovered, political stability improved and cultural life flourished, especially in Berlin.

Why was the recovery fragile?

It depended on US loans; unemployment and hardship remained for some groups, and some industries and farmers struggled.

What happened in the Wall Street Crash?

The US stock market crashed in October 1929, helping trigger a worldwide economic depression.

Why did the Depression hit Germany particularly hard?

US banks recalled loans and stopped lending, causing business failures, unemployment and a financial crisis.

How high did German unemployment reach by 1932?

About six million people.

Who was Heinrich Brüning?

Chancellor from 1930 to 1932 who imposed austerity, cutting spending, wages and benefits, and governed increasingly by emergency decree.

How did the Depression help the Nazis?

Economic misery weakened faith in democracy. Nazi promises of jobs, order, national revival and rejection of Versailles attracted voters.

How did Nazi propaganda attract support?

Posters, rallies, radio, slogans and targeted messages presented Hitler as a decisive leader with solutions for different groups.

Who was Joseph Goebbels?

The Nazi propaganda chief, appointed Minister of Propaganda in 1933, who controlled mass communication and cultural output.

How many seats did the Nazis win in September 1930?

107 seats, making them the second-largest party.

How many seats did the Nazis win in July 1932?

230 seats, making them the largest party, but without an overall majority.

What happened in the November 1932 election?

Nazi support fell and the party won 196 seats, showing that its rise was not inevitable.

When was Hitler appointed Chancellor?

30 January 1933, by President Hindenburg.

Why did Hindenburg appoint Hitler?

Conservative politicians, especially Franz von Papen, thought they could control Hitler and use his popularity. They badly underestimated him.

Did Hitler win an overall majority in a free election before becoming Chancellor?

No. The Nazis became the largest party but never won an overall majority in a free national election.

What was the Reichstag Fire?

The Reichstag building burned on 27 February 1933. The Nazis blamed communists and used the fire to justify emergency powers.

What did the Reichstag Fire Decree do?

It suspended civil liberties, enabling arrests, censorship and searches without normal legal safeguards.

What happened in the March 1933 election?

The Nazis won 43.9% of the vote and 288 seats, still short of an overall majority on their own.

What was the Enabling Act?

A law passed on 23 March 1933 allowing Hitler's government to make laws without the Reichstag for four years.

How did the Nazis secure the Enabling Act?

Communist deputies were excluded or arrested, SA intimidation created pressure, and the Centre Party voted for it. The SPD voted against.

What was Gleichschaltung?

The process of bringing institutions and organisations under Nazi control and making them conform to Nazi ideology.

What happened to trade unions in May 1933?

On 2 May, SA and police occupied union offices, arrested leaders and seized funds. Independent unions were replaced by the German Labour Front.

What was the German Labour Front (DAF)?

The Nazi organisation that replaced independent unions and controlled relations between workers and employers, without genuine collective bargaining.

When did Germany become a one-party state?

July 1933, when the Nazi Party became the only legal political party.

What was the Night of the Long Knives?

The purge of 30 June–2 July 1934, when Hitler ordered the murder of SA leaders and other perceived opponents.

Why did Hitler order the Night of the Long Knives?

To remove the SA leadership, reassure the army and eliminate political rivals, strengthening his control.

When did Hindenburg die and what followed?

He died on 2 August 1934. Hitler combined the offices of President and Chancellor and became Führer; the army swore loyalty to him personally.

What was the SS?

The Schutzstaffel, initially Hitler's bodyguard, which grew into a powerful organisation responsible for security, terror and racial policies.

What was the Gestapo?

The secret state police, which investigated and arrested people suspected of opposing the regime.

What was the SD?

The SS security service that gathered intelligence about actual and suspected enemies of the Nazi regime.

What was the purpose of concentration camps?

To imprison and terrorise political opponents and targeted groups, using harsh conditions and forced labour.

What was the People's Court?

A special court established in 1934 to try political offences; it became notorious for unfair trials and severe sentences.

How did the Nazis use censorship?

They controlled newspapers, books, radio, films, theatre and art to prevent criticism and spread Nazi ideas.

How did radio help Nazi propaganda?

Cheap People's Receivers made radio widely available, allowing Nazi speeches and approved programmes to reach millions.

What was the significance of the 1933 book burnings?

Works by Jewish, socialist and other writers considered un-German were publicly burned, demonstrating ideological control.

How were Nazi rallies used?

Mass rallies, especially at Nuremberg, used spectacle, choreography and symbolism to create unity and display power.

Who directed Triumph of the Will?

Leni Riefenstahl; the 1935 film presented the 1934 Nuremberg Rally as a spectacle of Hitler's power.

What was the Reich Labour Service (RAD)?

A state organisation employing mainly young men on projects such as land clearance and road building; service became compulsory for young men in 1935.

How did rearmament reduce unemployment?

Expansion of the armed forces and weapons industries created jobs in manufacturing, construction and related sectors.

When was conscription reintroduced?

1935, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

What were the autobahns?

Motorways built under Nazi rule; construction provided jobs and was used for propaganda, although it was not the main cause of falling unemployment.

Who was Hjalmar Schacht?

Economics Minister who helped finance recovery and rearmament, including through the MEFO bills system.

What were MEFO bills?

Promissory notes used to finance rearmament while delaying the need for immediate government payments.

What was the Four Year Plan (1936)?

A plan led by Hermann Göring to prepare Germany for war within four years by expanding rearmament and reducing dependence on imports.

What was autarky?

The aim of making Germany economically self-sufficient and less dependent on imported goods and raw materials.

Why did official unemployment figures fall?

Public works, rearmament, conscription, labour schemes and the exclusion of some groups from the figures all reduced recorded unemployment.

Why should Nazi unemployment figures be treated cautiously?

They excluded some groups, including many women and Jews, and did not fully reflect conscription or compulsory labour schemes.

What was Strength Through Joy (KdF)?

A German Labour Front organisation offering leisure activities and holidays to promote loyalty and manage workers' free time.

What was Beauty of Labour?

A scheme intended to improve workplace facilities, such as canteens and washing facilities, while increasing productivity.

What did Kinder, Küche, Kirche mean?

Children, kitchen, church: the Nazi ideal that women should focus on motherhood, domestic life and traditional values.

How did the Nazis encourage childbirth?

Through marriage loans, support for large families and the Mother's Cross for women who had many children deemed racially acceptable.

How did Nazi marriage loans work?

Eligible couples could receive a loan, with part written off for each child, encouraging marriage and childbirth.

Was Nazi policy towards women's employment consistent?

No. The regime promoted domesticity but later encouraged women into some jobs as labour shortages grew.

What was the purpose of Nazi education?

To indoctrinate young people with Nazi ideology, antisemitism, obedience, physical fitness and preparation for war.

How did Nazi schools change?

They emphasised racial ideology, German history, physical education and military preparation; teachers were expected to teach Nazi ideas.

What was the Hitler Youth?

The Nazi organisation for boys, promoting Nazi beliefs, discipline, physical fitness and preparation for military service.

What was the League of German Girls (BDM)?

The Nazi organisation for girls, promoting fitness, domestic skills, racial ideology and preparation for motherhood.

When did youth membership become compulsory?

A 1936 law made youth service a state duty; a 1939 law strengthened compulsory membership for most eligible young people.

Who were the Edelweiss Pirates?

Mainly working-class teenagers who rejected Hitler Youth discipline; some distributed anti-Nazi material and helped deserters.

Who were the Swing Youth?

Young people who enjoyed swing and jazz music and fashions disapproved of by Nazi authorities.

What was Volksgemeinschaft?

The Nazi idea of a racially defined people's community, excluding Jews and others labelled outsiders.

What happened in the April 1933 boycott of Jewish businesses?

SA members stood outside Jewish-owned shops and urged people not to enter, marking an early public attack on Jewish economic life.

What were the Nuremberg Laws (1935)?

Laws that stripped Jews of German citizenship and banned marriage and sexual relationships between Jews and people classified as German-blooded.

What was Kristallnacht?

The anti-Jewish pogrom of 9–10 November 1938: synagogues and businesses were attacked, people were killed and around 30,000 Jewish men were sent to camps.

What was the 1933 sterilisation law?

The Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring allowed compulsory sterilisation of people judged by Nazi authorities to have certain hereditary conditions.