Research Terms - Fall 2026

Research

Systematic, logical, and empirical inquiry into relationships among phenomena to produce verifiable knowledge.

Evidence-Based Practice

Conscious and judicious use of current best evidence in patient care and health care services.

Review of Literature

Extensive, systematic, and critical review of important scholarly sources on a particular topic.

Primary source

Scholarly literature written by person(s) who developed the theory or conducted the research.

Secondary source

Scholarly material written by person(s) other than the individual who developed the theory or conducted the research.

Concept

A term or statement that abstractly describes and names an object or phenomenon.

Conceptual model

Abstract and general concepts that explain a phenomenon, express assumptions, and reflect a philosophical state.

Theory

Organized set of interrelated concepts specifying the nature of relationships between variables.

Framework

Abstract, logical structure of meaning that guides study development and links findings to knowledge.

Metaparadigm

Primary and central phenomena of interest to a particular discipline (person, environment, health, nursing).

Anonymity

Participant identity remains unknown even to the researcher to promote objectivity and protect privacy.

Confidentiality

Management of research data so that subjects' identities are not linked with their responses.

Informed consent

Ethical principle requiring voluntary participation after informing subjects of potential benefits and risks.

Ethical principles

Principles of respect for persons, autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice in research.

Respect for persons

Requires researchers to respect a client's rights, values, and choices.

Autonomy

A person's right to make decisions free of coercion, supported by informed consent.

Justice

Individual and societal fairness in distributing treatment and selecting research participants.

Beneficence

Duty to inform subjects of risks and benefits and secure their well-being.

Nonmaleficence

The duty to do no harm and avoid deliberate harm during actions.

Plagiarism

Appropriation of another's ideas, processes, results, or words without appropriate credit.

Institutional review

Process of examining studies for ethical concerns by a committee of peers.

Bias

Process where scientists performing research influence results to portray a certain outcome.

Hawthorne effect

Tendency of people to perform better when participating in an experiment due to attention.

Research design

Blueprint for conducting a study.

PICOT or PICO Model

Structure used to help design a clinical evidence-based research question.

Qualitative research

Process generating knowledge using inductive methods that emphasize subjectivity and meaning.

Ethnography

Qualitative approach involving the study and description of a culture in its natural setting.

Grounded theory

Qualitative methodology used to develop theory or help provide evidence for a theory.

Case Study

Study of a selected phenomenon over time to provide in-depth description of a unique situation.

Phenomenology

Qualitative approach studying events or trends to understand the nature of lived experiences.

Saturation

Point where data collection reveals no new or different ideas or themes.

Quantitative research

Process generating knowledge using deductive methods testing relationships and cause-and-effect.

Experimental design

Research design where the researcher manipulates and controls variables to observe effects.

Quasi-experimental design

Study design without random assignment that manipulates independent variables with control mechanisms.

Correlational study

Non-experimental research examining the relationship between two or more variables.

Descriptive research

Non-experimental research designed to provide a knowledge-base when little is known.

Replication study

Study repeated to verify initial results.

Longitudinal research

Study following a cohort of subjects and collecting data over time.

Cross-sectional research

Study collecting data at a particular point in time without requiring follow-up.

Prospective study

Study examining data collected in the present.

Retrospective study

Study examining data collected in the past.

Meta-analysis

Statistical method synthesizing results of many studies to draw conclusions.

Triangulation

Use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a phenomenon.

Hypothesis

Statement about the relationship between two or more variables being researched.

Null hypothesis

Hypothesis predicting no relationship exists among or between variables.

Directional hypothesis

Hypothesis predicting the path or direction of the relationship between variables.

Causal hypothesis

Hypothesis predicting that one variable brings about a change in another.

Population

Entire set of subjects, objects, events, or elements for which study outcomes are intended.

Sample

A subset of a population.

Sampling

Process in which representative units of a population are selected for study.

Convenience sampling

Nonprobability sampling using the most readily accessible persons or objects.

Probability sampling

Sampling where every subject in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Nonprobability sampling

Sampling where the sample is not selected using random selection.

Random sampling

Sampling where each subject has an equal independent chance of being selected.

Random assignment

Allocation of subjects to either an experimental or control group.

Representative sample

Sample whose important characteristics closely approximate those of the population.

Snowball sampling

Nonprobability sampling relying on subjects identifying other subjects with similar characteristics.

Variable

A measurable characteristic that varies among subjects being studied.

Independent variable

Variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher (the treatment or intervention).

Dependent variable

Variable observed for changes as the presumed effect of the independent variable.

Extraneous variable

Variable not controlled for in a study that threatens internal validity.

Operational definition

Precise stipulation of how a variable will be measured and what tools will be used.

Direct measurement

Measurement of a concrete variable (e.g., height).

Indirect measurement

Measurement of an abstract idea (e.g., anxiety).

Instrument

Device, piece of equipment, or survey measuring a concept or variable.

Survey

Method of collecting data to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors.

Questionnaire

A survey that is self-administered or interviewer-administered.

Nominal-scale

Lowest measurement level using exclusive, exhaustive, unordered categories.

Ordinal-scale

Measurement level with categories that can be ordered (e.g., functional status levels).

Interval-scale

Measurement level with equal intervals but without an absolute zero.

Ratio-scale

Measurement level with equal intervals and an absolute zero.

Measurement error

Difference between the true measure and the actual measure.

Reliability

Consistency of a measurement technique or instrument.

Validity

How well an instrument actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Probability

The likelihood of an event occurring in a given situation.

Internal validity

Refers to whether the independent variable made a difference or extraneous variables did.

Generalizability

Degree to which study results represent the entire population; also called external validity.

Statistical significance

Extent to which analysis results are unlikely to be the effect of chance.

Clinical significance

Findings with clinical importance or meaning for patient care.

Conclusions

Explanation of findings including why results occurred.

Mean

Measure of central tendency calculated by summing scores and dividing by total count.

Median

Measure of central tendency representing the middle score in a distribution.

Mode

Score or value occurring most frequently in a distribution.

Range

Measure of variability equal to the difference between lowest and highest values.

Standard deviation

Most frequently used measure of variability; distance a score varies from the mean.

Parametric statistics

Techniques used when analyzing interval or ratio scale data.

Nonparametric statistics

Techniques used when analyzing ordinal or nominal scale data.

t-test

Parametric procedure assessing whether two group means are significantly different.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Parametric procedure testing for differences among three or more group means.

Chi-square

Nonparametric procedure assessing whether a relationship exists between two nominal variables.