Intro to Psych Exam 4

emotion

feeling (also called affect) that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression

physiological arousal

autonomic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system (physiological arousal)

arouses

parasympathetic nervous system (physiological arousal)

calms

Theories of emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Two-factor theory of emotion (Schachter/Singer)

James-Lange Theory

1 type of emotion for 1 reaction

aware of arousal → emotion because of aware

Cannon-Bard Theory

many emotions quickly

Two-factor theory of emotion (Schachter/Singer) [Cognitive Factors]

why experiences change

Emotions-Behavioral Factors

Verbal expression

nonverbal expression

facial feedback hypothesis

Nonverbal expression (emotions-behavioral factors)

posture, gestures, actions, facial expressions

Facial feedback hypothesis (emotions-behavioral factors)

facial expressions influence AND express emotions

supports James-Lange theory

not a lot of support

feel and express

Sociocultural Factors

• Strong biological component

  • blind children

• Expression of emotions are similar across cultures

  • Ekman-New Guinea- similar expressions, yet had no to little contact with the outside world

• Display rules determine when/how it is ok to express a given emotion

  • thumbs up is an insult in Greece

Classifying emotions

Valence

Arousal level

approach vs avoid

Valence (classifying emotions)

does it feel pleasant or not

positive or negative affect

arousal level (classifying emotions)

degree to which the emotion is reflected in an individual being active/engaged versus passive/calm

can be high or low

Approach vs avoid (classifying emotions)

anger is approach

fear is avoid

Why do we even have emotions

• Negative emotions help us take immediate actions
  ▪ Scared of that snake, run away

• Broaden and Build theory of positive emotion
  ▪ Broaden-see the whole picture
  ▪ Build-learn skills, build community for when there is trouble

• Resilience

Resilience

have optimistic and excited outlook

better able to cope with negative life events

use positive emotions to combat negative feelings

Pursuit of Happiness

biological factors

obstacles

happiness activities and goal striving

Biological factors

well being (50-80% heritable)

set point-base level of happiness

Obstacles

hedonic treadmill (pleasure short-lived, happiness is fleeting)

direct pursuit of happiness can backfire

Happiness activities and goal striving

Altruism, physical activity, positive self-reflection (gratitude journal)

Personally meaningful goal investment

personality

a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

Evolutionary Theory

The need to pass your genes to the next generation​

Drive-Reduction Theory

An aroused stage where we are motivated to remove our arousal

Goal is to return to neutral

Optimal Arousal Theory

There is an ideal middle ground for optimal performance that’s between being overenergized and completely tired​

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Optimal performance is best under moderate levels of arousal​

Intrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform for yourself​

May lead to more positive outcomes and more overall growth​

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform for someone/something else​

Self Regulation​

Get feedback, from either yourself or another​

Set moderately difficult goals – Not too easy, but not too hard​

Can set smaller goals ahead of larger ones​

Gratification Delay

Don’t allow instant rewards​​

Impulsivity

Doing things too quickly​

Procrastination

Doing things too late​

Psychodynamic Perspectives

• Theoretical view emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious.

• Understanding personality involves exploring the symbolic meanings of behavior and the unconscious mind

• Early childhood experiences sculpt the individual’s personality

Personality Structure

Id

Ego

Superego

Id

instincts and reservoir of psychic energy

pleasure principle

Ego

deals with the demands of reality

reality principle

Superego

moral branch of personality: “conscience”

Defense mechanisms

• Conflict between the id, ego, and superego results in anxiety.

• Defense Mechanisms

  • reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

  • not necessarily unhealthy

• Repression

  • push unacceptable impulses out of awareness

  • foundation for all defense mechanisms

Repression (defense mechanisms)

forget the unacceptable

Rationalization (defense mechanisms)

claim different motive

displacement (defense mechanisms)

shift feelings to new object

Sublimation (defense mechanisms)

transform vile to valuable

projection (defense mechanisms)

attribute own faults to others

Reaction formation (defense mechanisms)

convert to opposite emotion

Denial (defense mechanisms)

disbelieve present reality

regression (defense mechanisms)

revert to earlier, “safer” period

Psychosexual stages (Freud)

Oral stage (0-18 months)

anal stage (18-36 months)

phallic stage (3-6 years)

latency stage (6 years- puberty)

genital stage (adolescence and adulthood)

fixation (remain locked in particular developmental stage)

believed that women/girls have penis envy

also implies that only men have a moral code developed through puberty

Criticisms of Freud’s Psychosexual stages

• Sexuality

  • not pervasive force behind personality

• Early Experience

  • not as powerful as Freud thought

• Importance of Conscious thought

• Sociocultural Influences

Horney’s Sociocultural Approach (Dissenters and Revisionists of Freud’s psychosexual stages)

both sexes envy the attributes of the other

need for security, not sex, is primary motivator

Jung’s Analytical Theory (Dissenters and Revisionists of Freud’s psychosexual stages)

collective unconscious and archetypes

Adler’s Individual Psychology (Dissenters and Revisionists of Freud’s psychosexual stages)

perfection, not pleasure, is key motivator

Evaluating Psychodynamic Theory

• Criticisms

  • too much emphasis on earlyexperiences

  • too much faith in unconscious mind’s control

  • too much emphasis on sexual instincts

    • theory can not be tested

• Contributions

  • importance of childhood experiences

  • development proceeds in stages

  • role of unconscious processes

Humanistic Perspectives

emphasis on a person’s capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities

Abraham Maslow

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow (Humanistic Perspectives)

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• self-actualization

• peak experiences

• biased since the focus was on highly successful individuals

Carl Rogers (Humanistic Perspectives)

• personal growth and self-determination

• unconditional positive regard

  • conditions of worth

  • self-concept

• empathy

• genuineness

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives

• Contributions

  • self-perception is key to personality

    • consider the positive aspects of human nature

      • emphasize conscious experience

• Criticisms

  • too optimistic about human nature

  • promotes self-love and narcissism

Trait Perspectives

• Trait

  • an enduring disposition that leads to characteristic responses

    • traits are the building blocks of personality

• Trait Theories

  • people can be described by their typical behavior

  • strong versus weak tendencies

• Gordon Allport

  • personality understood through traits

  • behavior consistent across situations

  • lexical approach → 4500 traits

• W. T. Norman

  • five factor model

  • broad traits – main dimensions of personality

Openness (Five Factor Model of Personality)

Conscientiousness (Five Factor Model of Personality)

Extraversion (Five Factor Model of Personality)

Agreeableness (Five Factor Model of Personality)

Neuroticism / Stability (Five Factor Model of Personality)

Evaluating Trait Perspectives

• Contributions

  • traits influence health, cognitions, career success, and interpersonal relations

• Criticisms

  • ignores the role of the situation in behavior

  • ignores nuances of an individual’s personality

Social Cognitive Perspectives

• Emphasis is on conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals.

• Incorporates principles from behaviorism when exploring:

  • Reasoning

  • Beliefs

  • self reflection

  • interpretation of situation

• Albert Bandura

  • reciprocal determinism

    • behavior, environment, and cognitive

    • factors interact to create personality

• Key Processes and Variables

  • observational learning

  • Locus of control

    • Internal v external

  • self-efficacy

Reciprocal Determinism

Social Cognitive Perspectives

• Walter Mischel

• Situationalism

  • behavior and personality vary considerably across context

• CAPS Model of Personality

  • stability over time rather than across situations

  • interconnections among cognitions and emotions affect our behavior

Evaluating Social Cognitive Theory

• Contributions

  • focuses on interactions of individuals with their environments

  • suggests people can control their environment

• Criticisms

  • too concerned with change and the situation

  • ignores the role of biology

  • very specific predictions hinder generalization

Biological Perspectives

• Personality and the Brain

  • brain damage alters personality

  • brain responses correlate with personality

  • Predispositions in sensitivity to arousal, differences in inhibition, and activity of neurotransmitters

Biological Perspectives

• Behavioral Genetics

  • twin studies reveal substantial genetic influence on Big Five traits

  • most traits influenced by multiple genes

• Evaluating the Biological Perspective

  • ties personality to animal learning, brain imaging, and evolutionary theory

  • criticisms (e.g., biology may be the effect, not the cause, of personality)

Personality – Stability vs Change

Traits are stable by definition yet positive traits increase across adulthood (social maturity).

Personality Assessment

• Self-Report Tests

• Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory-Revised

  • assesses the big five factors and 6 subdimensions

• Myers Briggs Type Indicator

• Projective Tests

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) or Picture Story Exercise (PSE)

Self-Report Tests (Personality Assessment)

• beware social desirability

• empirically-keyed tests used to get around social desirability problem

  • test takers do not know what is being measured

  • test items not related to purpose of test

  • MMPI is an example

    • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

      • 567 items

      • controls for social desirability

      • assesses mental health and used to make hiring decisions and to determine criminal risk

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (Personality Assessment)

• four dimensions used to make personnel decisions:

  • extraversion-introversion

  • sensing-intuiting

  • thinking-feeling

  • judgment-perception

• not empirically supported

• Barnum effect

Projective Tests (Personality Assessment)

• psychodynamic approach

• project own meaning on ambiguous stimuli

  • Rorschach Inkblot Test

    • personality score based on description of inkblots

    • questionable reliability and validity

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) or Picture Story Exercise (PSE) [Personality Assessment]

• series of ambiguous pictures viewed one at a time

• elicited stories reveal an individual’s personality

Other Personality Assessment Methods

• Direct Behavioral Observation

• Cognitive Assessment of Attention and Memory

• Peer Ratings

• Psychophysiological Measures (e.g., polygraph)

• Brain Imaging

Abnormal behavior is:

• deviant (atypical)

• maladaptive (dysfunctional)

• personally distressing (despair)

• Danger to self/other

Theoretical Approaches to abnormal psychology

• biological approach

• psychological approach

• sociocultural approach

• biopsychosocial model

Biological Approach

• Medical Model

  • disorders with biological origins

Psychological Approach

experiences, thoughts, emotions, personality, behavior

Sociocultural Approach

social context…important for deviance

Biopsychosocial Model

• interaction of biological, psychological and
  sociocultural factors

  • Diathesis stress model

DSM-V Classification System

• Advantages

  • provides a common basis for communication

  • helps clinicians make predictions

  • naming the disorder can provide comfort

• Disadvantages

  • stigma (shame, negative reputation)

  • medical terminology implies internal cause

  • focus on weaknesses, ignores strengths

Anxiety Disorders

• uncontrollable fears that are disproportionate and disruptive

• generalized anxiety disorder

• panic disorder

• specific phobia

• social anxiety disorder

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • persistent anxiety for at least 6 months

  • inability to specify reasons for the anxiety

• Etiology

  • biological factors

    • genetic predisposition, GABA deficiency, Respiration

  • psychological and sociocultural factors

    • harsh self-standards, critical parents, negative thoughts, trauma

Panic Disorder

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • recurrent, sudden onsets of intense terror that often occur without warning

• Etiology

  • biological factors: genetic predisposition

  • psychological factors: conditioning to CO2. High concentration = fear

  • sociocultural factors: gender differences

Specific Phobia

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation

• Etiology

  • psychological factors: learned

  • biological factors: genetic disposition

Social Anxiety Disorder

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations

• Etiology

  • biological factors:

    • genetic disposition

    • neural circuitry

    • Serotonin

  • psychological factors:

    • over-protective / rejecting parenting

    • social experiences

Anxiety-Related Disorders

• Anxiety-related, but not classified in DSM-5 as anxiety disorders:

  • obsessive-compulsive disorder

  • post-traumatic stress disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • persistent anxiety-provoking thoughts and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce a situation

• Etiology

  • biological factors:

    • genetic predisposition

    • Neurotransmitters

  • psychological factors: avoidance learning

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • Symptoms develop as a result of exposure to a
    traumatic event, oppressive situation, natural or
    unnatural disasters

  • flashbacks

  • avoidance of emotional experiences

  • anxiety, excessive arousal

  • difficulties with memory and concentration

  • impulsive outbursts

Mood-Related Disorders

• disturbance of mood that affects entire emotional state

• Symptoms may include

  • cognitive, behavioral, or physical symptoms

  • interpersonal difficulties

• Types

  • major depressive disorder

• Mood-related but not DSM-5 mood disorder:

  • bipolar disorder

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Diagnosis and Symptoms

  • significant depressive episode that lasts for at least two weeks

  • daily functioning is impaired

  • symptoms may include

    • fatigue, sense of worthlessness, reduced interest

    • appetite & sleep disturbance

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Etiology

  • biological factors:

    • genetic disposition

    • underactive prefrontal cortex

    • regulation of neurotransmitters

  • psychological factors:

    • learned helplessness

    • ruminating on negative, self-defeating thoughts

    • pessimistic attribution

  • sociocultural factors

    • poverty

    • gender differences

Bipolar Disorder

• Bipolar I and Bipolar II

  • Characterized by extreme mood swings that include mania

    • Overexcited, unrealistic optimism, euphoric, sleep little

  • Frequency and separation of episodes

    • usually separated by 6 months to a year

  • Etiology

    • strong genetic component

    • swings in metabolic activity in cerebral cortex

    • levels of neurotransmitters

Dissociative Disorders

• sudden loss of memory or change in identity

• Dissociation
  ◦ protection from extreme stress or shock
  ◦ problems integrating emotional memories

• Types
  ◦ dissociative amnesia
  ◦ dissociative identity disorder (DID)

• Dissociative Amnesia

  • individuals experience extreme memory loss caused by extensive psychological stress

• Dissociative Identity Disorder

  • Diagnosis and Symptoms

    • the same individual possesses two or more distinct personalities

    • each personality has unique memories, behaviors, and relationships

    • only one personality is dominant at a time

• Etiology

  • extraordinarily severe abuse in early childhood

  • social contagion

  • mostly women

  • runs in families

Schizophrenia-Spectrum

• highly disordered thought

  • split from reality (psychotic)

  • typically diagnosed in early adulthood

  • high suicide risk

  • Psychosis-perceptions and thoughts removed from reality

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Positive Symptoms

  • hallucinations and delusions

  • thought disorders

  • disorders of movement

• Negative Symptoms

  • flat affect

• Cognitive Symptoms

  • attention difficulties and memory problems

  • impaired ability to interpret information and make decisions

Etiology of Schizophrenia

Biological Factors

• genetic predisposition

• structural brain abnormalities/deterioration

  • Enlarged ventricles

• regulation of neurotransmitters: dopamine & glutamate

• Psychological Factors

  • vulnerability-stress hypothesis

• Sociocultural Factors

  • influence how disorder progresses