CLST 24 Test 2

WHAT: Roman society in Historical Period

TIME PERIOD: few ventures after the 6th c. BCE (i.e. historical period)

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Extremely hierarchical, can provide some insight into structures of the prehistoric period

WHAT: Leopard Spots

TIME PERIOD: Iron Age

LOCATION: various places in central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: clusters of settlements from Bronze Age, not cities, strategic location

WHAT: chamber tombs

TIME PERIOD: 6th/7th c BCE

LOCATION: Etruria

SIGNIFICANCE: rise of display of surplus wealth

WHAT: diffusion of urban centers

TIME PERIOD: 6th century

LOCATION: peninsular Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: Western (Tyrrhenian side) dotted with cities

WHAT: Statue of Athena & Herculus

TIME PERIOD: 6th c. BCE

LOCATION: Sant Omobono, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: blend of Etruscan, Greek, native influence - lots of comparanda, not specific to place, general theme of elites showing off power/wealth

WHAT: Terracotta lions

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Sant Omobono, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: blend of Etruscan, Greek, native influence

WHAT: Sant Omobono temple

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: first temple in Rome, capellacio quarried from sides of Capitoline hill, welcoming traders/visitors from Tiber and/or a place to pray for safe travel

WHAT: Products and the specializations related to them

TIME PERIOD: 8th to 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Latium

SIGNIFICANCE: evidence of specialization and social stratification (products for elite), creation of a non-elite class that produces things for the elite

WHAT: Terranoto’s model for social structures in prehistory

TIME PERIOD: Emerging city state - EIA

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: heterarchy of clans that choose to share power, maybe rankings within clans but somewhat equal between clans

WHAT: Aristocratic homes

TIME PERIOD: late 6th century

LOCATION: North Slope of Palatine Hill, Rome

MATERIAL: capellacio & stone, quarried by Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: evidence of an elite class, maybe regal residence, complexity of materials & architectural formation

Also - Carandini reconstructed as historical Roman house, but this is questionable

WHAT: Terranato’s picture of social dynamics in Rome

TIME PERIOD: Early Iron Age

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: heterarchy (influenced lots of European societies in this time period), multiple clan groups that were unranked or ranked in different ways, unclear what is happening on boundary spaces

EVIDENCE: multiple necropolii showing multiple families in competition with one another

WHAT: ashlar masonry

TIME PERIOD: 6th century

LOCATION: Homes on Palatine and elsewhere in Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Permanence, complexity in materials & architectural formation

WHAT: Plans of houses

TIME PERIOD: late 6th century

LOCATION: North Slope of Palatine Hill, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: development of an elite class, permanent and more complex building construction

WHAT: Atrium house

TIME PERIOD: 1st century BCE

LOCATION: Pompeii

SIGNIFICANCE: tells us a lot about the historical home, but Carandini uses this teleologically to reconstruct homes on the Palatine

WHAT: Atrium in the House of the Silver Wedding

TIME PERIOD: 1st century BCE

LOCATION: Pompeii

SIGNIFICANCE: Again, this tells us a lot about the HISTORICAL home but not necessarily prehistoric homes - Carandini uses this teleologically

WHAT: cities

TIME PERIOD: Iron Age & Archaic periods

LOCATION: central Tyrrhenian Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: development of urban centers along the central Tyrrhenian coast in the EIA and Archaic periods

WHAT: Terracotta plaques from domestic structures

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Acquarossa

SIGNIFICANCE: investment into domestic sites, evidence of banquets (elite activity)

WHAT: stone foundations

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Acquarossa

SIGNIFICANCE: evidence of investment into more advanced domestic space, supported mud brick walls and terracotta

WHAT: terracotta plaque from domestic structure

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Acquarossa

SIGNIFICANCE: investment into domestic sites, evidence of dances and processions (elite activity)

WHAT: terracotta plaque from domestic structure

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Aquarossa

SIGNIFICANCE: investment into domestic sites, military activity, evidence of roof tile industry (local and regional production) - tiles didn’t move around very easily, so probably local

WHAT: terra-cotta plaque from domestic structure

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Aquarossa

SIGNIFICANCE: investment into domestic sites, military activity and mythological representations, local roof tile industry

WHAT: site plan of building and with tile roof and terracotta acroteria sculptures

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE (destroyed at end)

LOCATION: Murlo

SIGNIFICANCE: more advanced domestic space, pieces of burned down structure put into a votive pit, evidence of tile production and votive activity

WHAT: tile rood from building with acroteria structures

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE (destroyed at end)

LOCATION: Murlo

SIGNIFICANCE: more advanced domestic space, pieces of burned down structure put into a votive pit, evidence of tile production and votive activity

WHAT: terracotta acroteria

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Murlo

SIGNIFICANCE: odd, can’t find comparisons, local “flair”, maybe elite representation

WHAT: terra-cotta roof tile

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Murlo

SIGNIFICANCE: evidence of advanced domestic structures and banquets (elite activity), tile production

WHAT: drawing of terra-cotta rood tile

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Murlo

SIGNIFICANCE: evidence of advanced domestic structures and banquets (elite activity), tile production

WHAT: site plan of Satricum

TIME PERIOD: c. 500 BCE

LOCATION: Satricum

SIGNIFICANCE: development of religious architecture (more monumental, made of stone, etc), stone of dedication found to Mars here

WHAT: remains of Satricum

TIME PERIOD: c. 500 BCE

LOCATION: Satricum

SIGNIFICANCE: development of religious architecture (rectangular plans w/ stone foundations, more monumental), stone of dedication here

WHAT: Lapis Satricanus

TIME PERIOD: c, 500 BCE

LOCATION: Satricum

SIGNIFICANCE: dedication from “companions of Publius Valerius” might represent development of elite class, dedication to Mars represents more monumental religious architecture/formalization of religion

WHAT: Roman man and a Mafia leader

TIME PERIOD: Iron Age and Archaic Period

LOCATION: central Italy (esp. Rome)

SIGNIFICANCE: Iron Age clan leaders and pater families similar to mafia leaders, used the state to influence things in their favor (protect his family’s wealth, power, and land), deliberate decision to share power and to negotiate/form alliances

I

WHAT: The Dawn of Everything book

TIME PERIOD: 2021

LOCATION: n/a

SIGNIFICANCE: Rome attains statehood between 6th and 8th centuries, but the debate is where the term an be used

Book discusses recognizing process of urbanization/state formation in archaeological record, relationship between urbanization and state formation

1

WHAT: Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of the 6th centuries

LOCATION: Roman Forum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex, indicates presence of kings

WHAT: inscription on Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of 6th century

LOCATION: Roman Forum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex, indicates presence of kings

WHAT: inscription on Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of 6th century

LOCATION: Roman Forum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex, indicates presence of kings

WHAT: museum exhibition and catalogue

TIME PERIOD: (about) late Archaic period before Republican period, published 1990

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: a lot of amazing material evidence from this period, but was it because of the Tarquins or not?

WHAT: V Gordon Childe’s Criteria for the Urban Revolution

TIME PERIOD: written 1950, applied to EIA/Archaic Period

LOCATION: anywhere, but applied to Rome/central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: some general trends, but one size does not fit all

• distance important - not everyone living in proximity in food development, exceeding carrying capacity of immediate surroundings

• socio-economic inequality !!

• urbanization not inevitable but history has tended to trend that way, hunter gather —> big city

• 
  

WHAT: Gordon Childe

TIME PERIOD: wrote his 10 criteria for a city in 1950, and it was applied to EIA/Archaic Period

LOCATION:anywhere, but applied to Rome/central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE:some general trends, but one size does not fit all

• distance important - not everyone living in proximity in food development, exceeding carrying capacity of immediate surroundings

• socio-economic inequality !!

• urbanization not inevitable but history has tended to trend that way, hunter gather —> big city

• 
  

II

WHAT: Dawn of Everything, about Mega Site

TIME PERIOD: 4000 BCE

LOCATION: Nebelivka, Ukraine (or what is now Ukraine)

SIGNIFICANCE: seems to be a city without massive social inequality (no monumental buildings, elaborate tombs, etc)

can have urban development without socioeconomic inequality (Marxist archaeology), pushes back against Childe’s criteria

EXTRA DETAILS:

• preceded pyramids in 2600 BCE

• intentionally burned, maybe ritually

WHAT: Mega Site

TIME PERIOD: 4000 BCE

LOCATION: Nebelivka, modern Ukraine

SIGNIFICANCE: seems to be a city without massive social inequality (no monumental buildings, elaborate tombs, etc)

can have urban development without socioeconomic inequality (Marxist archaeology), pushes back against Childe’s criteria

EXTRA DETAILS:

• preceded pyramids in 2600 BCE

• intentionally burned, maybe ritually

• concentric circles, roads making neighborhoods/districts

WHAT: criteria for cities

TIME PERIOD: can be applied anytime, here to EIA/Archaic

LOCATION: anywhere, here to Rome/central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: attributes that can be tested with archaeological evidence at Rome

• establishing public space important

• these things developed slowly in Rome, not built in a day

• regal residences one of these here, but can have kings within an oligarchic socity

  • Lapis Niger - stone with inscription of REX taken as archaeological evidence for king of Rome, but what was he really

WHAT: leopard spots

TIME PERIOD: Early Iron Age

LOCATION: Central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: clusters of settlements that preceded cities, protourbanism!

WHAT: Burial Sites

TIME PERIOD: Blue = LBA thru EIA IIA, Yellow = Iron Age, until the 8th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: activity stopping in 8th century and burial shifts to Esquiline

• evidence that this space was starting to become used as public space / part of the cirt

• example of collective action - they all stop at oncce

  • area is not just for one family - needs to be accessible for all

• Place of opportunity that everyone could benefit from

WHAT: Necropolis

TIME PERIOD: Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, until the 8th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: activity stopped in 8th century, indicating collective action, increasing importance of this as public space and a place of opportunity

WHAT: Grave

TIME PERIOD: Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, until 8th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: I think (from last time) this one has an infant burial, which was unusual for a necropolis

• activity stopped in 8th century, indicating collective action, increasing importance of this as public space and a place of opportunity

WHAT: Hut urns and other terracotta grave goods

TIME PERIOD: Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, until 8th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: representation of domestic architecture, evidence of social stratification/roles/daily life

• activity stopped in 8th century, indicating collective action, increasing importance of this as public space and a place of opportunity

WHAT: map of wall feature found by Andrea Carandini

TIME PERIOD: late 8th century

LOCATION: Palatine Hill, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: A Carandini claimed this was Romulus’s wall, which seems teleological/unlikely

WHAT: newspaper of Caradini’s Romulus wall

TIME PERIOD: wall from 8th century BCE (supposedly 753) , article from 1988

LOCATION: Palatine Hill

SIGNIFICANCE: claimed this was Romulus’ wall from 753 BCE - telelogical/not likely

• not very tall, probably not for defense

  • to create height, they would create ditches/moats, and there is no evidence of this

• Romulus was a myth from historical period, no real evidence that it is true

WHAT: picture of site of “Romulus’ wall”

TIME PERIOD: wall from 8th century BCE

LOCATION: Palatine Hill, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: claimed this was Romulus’ wall from 753 BCE - telelogical/not likely

• not very tall, probably not for defense

• Romulus was a myth from historical period, no real evidence that it is true

WHAT: another picture of “Romulus’s wall”

TIME PERIOD: wall from 8th century BCE

LOCATION: Palatine Hill, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: claimed this was Romulus’ wall from 753 BCE - telelogical/not likely

• not very tall, probably not for defense

• Romulus was a myth from historical period, no real evidence that it is true

WHAT: supposed “Romulus’s wall”

TIME PERIOD: from 8th century BCE

LOCATION: Palatine Hill, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: claimed this was Romulus’ wall from 753 BCE - telelogical/not likely

• not very tall, probably not for defense

  • to create height, they would create ditches/moats, and there is no evidence of this

  • very rubbly

• also no evidence for decoration

• stone construction is novel but still very small scale

• maybe an enclosure for burial space, demarcation of space (sheep pen)

• 
  

WHAT:

TIME PERIOD:

LOCATION:

SIGNIFICANCE:

3

WHAT: The Dawn of Everything

TIME PERIOD: any and all (Roman urbanization = EIA and Archaic)

LOCATION: any and all (focus on Rome)

SIGNIFICANCE: Rome urbanized between 6th and 8th centuries, exactly when unclear

• focus has been on timeline, but HOW and WHY Rome became a state/urbanized is way more interesting

Questions:

• how can we see this process in archaeological record?

• relationship between urbanization and state formation?

WHAT: Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of 6th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex (to/for king) is potential evidence for presence of kings

• myth of 7 kings well entrenched in historical and modern period

• in low level in Forum, disappear until excavated

• what were the kings? could have a different meaning, maybe just an office and still hetarachical

  • Rex Sacrorum in historical/later periods - religious position

• stone seems to be part of a larger reconstruction - this picture is a hypothetical reconstruction)

• tyrant? clans rose up and controlled and had temporary rule

• potential fluctuations between oligarchy, hetararchy, monarchy, democracy

WHAT: Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of 6th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex (to/for king) is potential evidence for presence of king

• stone seems to be part of a larger reconstruction - this picture is a hypothetical reconstruction)

• tyrant? clans rose up and controlled and had temporary rule

• potential fluctuations between oligarchy, hetararchy, monarchy, democracy

• made of local quarried tufo

• one of earliest Latin inscriptions

• oligarchical OR ruling over all of this (like Pharaoh)

WHAT: Lapis Niger

TIME PERIOD: 1st half of 6th century

LOCATION: Forum Romanum

SIGNIFICANCE: recei, archaic form of the dative case of rex (to/for king) is potential evidence for presence of king

• myth of 7 kings well entrenched in historical and modern period

• in low level in Forum, disappear until excavated

• what were the kings? could have a different meaning, maybe just an office and still hetarachical

  • Rex Sacrorum in historical/later periods - religious position

• made of local quarried tufo

• one of earliest Latin inscriptions

• oligarchical OR ruling over all of this (like Pharaoh)

WHAT: small temple like complex

TIME PERIOD: early 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Tarquinia

SIGNIFICANCE: votive offerings found here indicate position of authority, general development of religious architecture (more monumental temples)

WHAT: bronze lituus (staff), trumpet, and shield

TIME PERIOD: early 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Tarquinia

SIGNIFICANCE:found in a votive deposit outside wall of temple-like compound, indicate positions of authority, symbols of military part of society, different than symbols of wealth but developing at similar times

WHAT: bronze shield

TIME PERIOD: early 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Tarquinia

SIGNIFICANCE: found in a votive deposit outside wall of temple-like compound, indicate positions of authority, symbols of military part of society, different than symbols of wealth but developing at similar times

WHAT: modern demonstration of trumpet

TIME PERIOD: modern, but based on trumpet from early 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Tarquinia

SIGNIFICANCE: ceremony for a trumpet found in a votive deposit outside wall of temple-like compound, indicate positions of authority, symbols of military part of society, different than symbols of wealth but developing at similar times

WHAT: possible Etruscan colony

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Marzabotto, Po Plain

SIGNIFICANCE: ectilinear buildings = better evidence for rectilinear homes than Roman evidence, very well excavated

• northern Italy in Po Valley

• possibly an Etruscan colony

• contemporary with 12 Tables

WHAT: possible Etruscan colony

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Marzabotto, Po Plain

SIGNIFICANCE: rectilinear buildings = better evidence for rectilinear homes than Roman evidence, very well excavated

• northern Italy in Po Valley

• possibly an Etruscan colony

• contemporary with 12 Tables

WHAT: possible Etruscan colony

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Marzabotto, Po Plain

SIGNIFICANCE: rectilinear buildings = better evidence for rectilinear homes than Roman evidence, very well excavated

• northern Italy in Po Valley

• possibly an Etruscan colony

• contemporary with 12 Tables

WHAT: possible Etruscan colony

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Marzabotto, Po Plain

SIGNIFICANCE: rectilinear buildings = better evidence for rectilinear homes than Roman evidence, very well excavated

• northern Italy in Po Valley

• possibly an Etruscan colony

• contemporary with 12 Tables

WHAT: possible Etruscan colony

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Marzabotto, Po Plain

SIGNIFICANCE: rectilinear buildings = better evidence for rectilinear homes than Roman evidence, very well excavated

• northern Italy in Po Valley

• possibly an Etruscan colony

• contemporary with 12 Tables

WHAT: diagram of Etruscan nucleation from Stoddart

TIME PERIOD: 1000 BCE - 600 BCe

LOCATION: Etruria

SIGNIFICANCE: not specific dates where city is “founded”, longer processes of formation

• Foundation: hut villages, with funerary urns (1000-950)

• Transformation I: heterachical nucleated centers, still oval huts, urns and HUT urns (950-850 BCE)

• Transformation II: irregular rectinlinear house, trench/tumuus/tombs with “Eastern knowledge” (850-700)

• Resilience: monumentalization, regular rectilinear house, chamber tombs (700-600)

1

WHAT: Tiber Valley

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Tiber at Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• gently sloping shore, natural harbor (cross river without a boat, pull boat to shore) - conducive to trading

  • much lighter than now

• permanent settlement on hills since 2nd millenium

  • CONTROL over this river valley

• in 8th century, this was NOT a floodplain because they wouldn’t have buried here

  • contradicts current scholarship that it was a wet place that needed be filled

• Sant Omobono - 560 BCE - first major investment

  • another level of labor, technical expertise, time investment

WHAT: harbor/ford

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Tiber was a natural harbor/ford, easily crossable without a boat and easy to pull boats ashore. This was attractive to traders and made Rome an important location without central Italy

WHAT: professor’s cores

TIME PERIOD: various

LOCATION: Forum Boarium

SIGNIFICANCE:

• 6th century - 5 m of silt gets deposited in this valley (B)

  • alluvial deposit: sediment left by water

  • this level dated to early Archaic period

• much finer silt (found in floodplain) - rivers have less energy as they flood and drop a “suspended load”

• riverbed - sands, rounded gravel

WHAT: Tiber Valley at Rome

TIME PERIOD: mid-Republican/3rd century BCE

LOCATION: Valley of the Tiber River in Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• the valley was filled for them! by the floods

  • 5 m of alluvial deposits in 6th century

    • contrasts with reclamation hypothesis

• much less gently sloping

WHAT: list of major constructions in Rome

TIME PERIOD: late 7th - early 5th centuries

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Permanent, monumental structures evidence of urbanization

• cores align with a lot of construction

• a lot around/outside of Rome, from field survey and walking

• lots of city building, new materials, new technologies

Sant Omobono - first major investment

• another level of labor, technical expertise, time investment

2

WHAT: museum exhibition and catalogue

TIME PERIOD: published 1990, about late Archaic before Republic

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Lots of archaeological change in late 6th century Rome (Capitoline/JOM Temple, twin temples at S. Omobono, other monumental architecture) - was it the kings or not?

WHAT: book

TIME PERIOD: written in 2016, about 550-500

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: shift to monumental architecture, focus on Capitoline/Jupiter Optimus Maximus Temple

• substantial change in building practice - larger and more complex design, and more international sculpture on roofs

• LOTS of archaeological change in late 6th century

WHAT: Capitoline Temple

TIME PERIOD: late 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Monumental architecture! Stone foundations, columns, terracotta roof

WHAT: foundation of Capitoline Temple

TIME PERIOD: late 6th century BCE

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Monumental architecture! Large stone foundations made these temples sturdy, large, imposing

WHAT: Samples from Diffendale’s work

TIME PERIOD: modern phase, about Archaic period

LOCATION: Rome, Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: quarried rock from Capitoline

• chemical analysis of building material - stone from various monumental buildings come from basically the same source

• collected samples from the side of Capitoline - stone quarried for these buildings came from here

WHAT: Diffendale article

TIME PERIOD: modern phase, about Archaic period

LOCATION: Rome, Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: quarried rock from Capitoline

• chemical analysis of building material - stone from various monumental buildings come from basically the same source

• collected samples from the side of Capitoline - stone quarried for these buildings came from here

2

WHAT: Tiber Valley

TIME PERIOD: early 6th century

LOCATION: Tiber Valley, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Sant Omobono not originally in a floodplain!!

• solves this issue of scholars thinking it was and just thinking it was a mistake that the Romans built it here

• eventually it does become one and they build taller structures, but not originally!

WHAT: superimposition of ancient Forum Romanum and potential quarry area of Capitoline on aerial view of modern view

TIME PERIOD: under picture is modern, yellow is Archaic period

LOCATION: Forum Romanum and side of Capitoline Hill

SIGNIFICANCE:

• lots of stone quarried from side of Capitoline Hill!

  • intensely exploited very quickly to build all of those structures

• this area that was quarried, then became part of the Forum

• Forum was a massive industrial site in 6th century

• scale of change is HUGE! - also in river valley

  • stone, but also timber, clay, etc

WHAT: terracotta tile kiln

TIME PERIOD: (beginning in) 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: lots of timber required for these kilns, leads to deforestation

• development of architecture with the advent of tile roofs

WHAT: terracotta roof tiles

TIME PERIOD: 7th century BCE

LOCATION: Italy

SIGNIFICANCE: development of domestic/religious architecture with the advent of tile roofs with intricate designs and terracotta structures

2

WHAT: Brock’s cores

TIME PERIOD: various

LOCATION: Forum Boarium

SIGNIFICANCE: 5 feet of alluvial deposits in 6th century - filled in Valley and made it a floodplain

• Tiber is the source of sediment

• sediment may have been partially caused by deforestation - eroded and found way to river valley because of less trees

WHAT: Tiber Valley Project

TIME PERIOD: 580-480 BCE (Archaic)

LOCATION: Tiber Valley in central Italy around Tiber

SIGNIFICANCE: lots of urbanization/nucleation around the Tiber

• levels - town, nucleated settlement, high status settlement, other settlement, farm, necropolis

• access to trade, shipping, other communities

• deforestation around may lead to alluvial deposits/more volcanic sediments in river

• development of farms, necropolii, and smaller settlements around centers (becoming city-states)

WHAT: papulae

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: alluvial sediments in Tiber, Brock’s cores

SIGNIFICANCE: soil associated with volcanic activity, so deforestation + precipitation might have led to erosion which led to alluvial deposits in Tiber

WHAT: core w/ papulae

TIME PERIOD: 6th century BCE

LOCATION: alluvial sediments in Tiber in Brock’s cores

SIGNIFICANCE:

• coarse, silt sized fragments of former Bt soil horizons that were frequent on volcanic plateaus of Rome) that have been eroded away

• based on tight chronology w/ ceramic sherds

• soil associated with volcanic activity, so deforestation + precipitation might have led to erosion which led to alluvial deposits in Tiber

WHAT: Tiber Valley + Via Salaria

TIME PERIOD: Archaic

LOCATION: central Italy

SIGNIFICANCE:

• Via Salaria - salt road - coming from coast through Rome to highlands

  • attested historically, but thought to have existed as early as Bronze Age

  • natural resources in central Italy that were available to Rome

• sediment coming from upriver, may have been more widespread than Rome

WHAT: Tiber Island

TIME PERIOD: built up in the 6th century

LOCATION: in the Tiber River near Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• thought by modern scholars to always have existed and to have created natural ford/harbor

• legend that Romans put crops in the river after the kings ousted and the river brought stuff to make an island

  • reasonable that historians discounted this, but geoarchaeological evidence allows for a reconsideration

  • awareness it didn’t always exist - maybe they knew this from Annales Maximi

  • built in 509 BCE (monarchy)

• streets converge, bridge - indicate thet there was a ford

• buildup of Tiber Island is now well dated to 6th century based on cores (emerged during 6th)

  • There was a ford but not because of the island (just shallow)

• Tiber Island may have presented practical challenges (or benefits) and/or had religious implications

3

WHAT: Tiber Valley

TIME PERIOD: 6th century

LOCATION: Tiber Valley, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Tiber Island did not exist in 6th century, contrary to modern historian’s belief - instead, river was just shallow and gently sloping and the island emerged during the 6th century

WHAT: Flood impacts in the Augustan period

TIME PERIOD: Augustan period (43 BC - 18 AD)

LOCATION: Tiber Valley near Rome

SIGNIFICANCE: Rome/Forum Valley did become susceptible to floods

• however, it was not in the 6th and the reclamation theory is not accurate

  • doesn’t make sense that they would build a city before they’d seen one

  • “they must have had the same problem” is an important, pervasive view but cannot assume flooding in prehistory

• Floods reach as high as 20 m

  • know they reached some buildings, very well documented

  • major case study of urban flooding

2

WHAT: Tiber Valley

TIME PERIOD: mid-Republican Period (3rd century BCE)

LOCATION: Tiber Valley in Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• more constricted river that needed a bridge

• might have had floods and drainage problems

• may have needed drainage in floodplain

  • small scale reclamation NOW, but not earlier

• created Forum = created city - lots of debate onchronology of fill, but new evidence disproves this whole thing

4

WHAT: Tiber Valley

TIME PERIOD: 6th century

LOCATION: Tiber Valley, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• setting for “Res Publica 1.0” - not suitable for private individuals, so it was shared land, especially because lots of people need access to move through

• Sant Omobono temple built in 560 BCE and abandoned at end of 6th century BCE

• ideal landscape to control and toll people in early 6th century

WHAT: plan of new Sant Omobono Temple with old one in Red

TIME PERIOD: first one built in early 6th century, new one built in early 5th century

LOCATION: Forum Boarium, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• original temple built in a place that was much less floodprone

• still not explanation from Ammerman et all - just assumed it was a mistake because it was floodprone

• temple shows importance of space and the desire for divine presence

WHAT: capellacio platform of the Sant Omobono temple (or similar)

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Forum Boarium, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• Romans DOUBLE DOWN and built a new temple! 12 m above sea level

  • shows they didn’t want to give up this bustling area

  • now twin temples!

• Platform = flood mitigation technique

• Floods in late 6th century require more organization and collective action - “Res Publica 2.0”

• stone quarried from the SE side of the Capitoline hill

WHAT: plan of the later Sant Omobono Sanctuary

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century

LOCATION: Forum Boarium, Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• Romans DOUBLE DOWN and built a new temple! 12 m above sea level

  • shows they didn’t want to give up this bustling area

  • now twin temples!

• Platform = flood mitigation technique

• Floods in late 6th century require more organization and collective action - “Res Publica 2.0”

• stone quarried from the SE side of the Capitoline hill

WHAT: Hypothetical reconstruction of twin temples at the Sant Omobono Sanctuary

TIME PERIOD: early 5th century BCE

LOCATION: Rome

SIGNIFICANCE:

• late 6th century activities - investing and collective action

• Platform is a flood mitigation effort - choose to stay beau the area is still important to them

  • religiously, socially, economically important

  • more organization and collective action - “Res Publica 2.0”

• also build port infrastructure and embankment walls

HOPKINS 2017

Tarqunius Superbus credited with period of monumental construction in Rome, but was it really him?

• Major construction goes past his reign - many buildings built, vowed, begun, finished in 50 years after his reign/monarchy ended

• absence of testimony on royal monarchy on construction

• Tarquin shift in early Rome might be misleading

Lindenhout 2017

Looking at buildings thought to be royal residences, conclude that none of them are

• including Andrea Carandini’s reconstruction, Regia

  • some of the houses are not unique, don’t show differences with building practices of the period

• excavators set up chronologies that line up with reigns - coincidental?

Lulof 2000

Acroteria of Herculus and Athena similar to other statues around the Mediterranean may not have been unique, just the way that wealth was displayed

• people try to seek political propaganda, but prob just a display of power and wealth

Bernard 2018

New building materials - stone, terracotta, metal, wood

Imperial conquest gives Rome access to quarries, forests, mines to supply these things

• Republican state acquires and works territories providing these resources

• mix between state and private involvement

Hopkins 2016

On A New Scale

new scale of monumental architecture, focus on Capitoline Temple/Temple of JOM

• huge, never been done on this scale before

• some influence from other places in Mediterranean, but first in Rome/central Italy to be THIS LARge

Also: S. Omobono Statues, Regia, Atrium Vestae, domestic architecture on Palatine, defensive walls

• new materials, building techniques, organization/collective action

Lindenhout 2016

Huts to houses

• big changes in domestic building changes

  • from huts made of poles, branches, mud, and straw to…

  • houses with stone foundations, tiles, wood

• consequence of contact with other cultures, social stratification

  • change level of social stratification may not have been that dramatic - superimposition of houses onto huts, so huts might have been predecessors elite dwellings (specifically courtyard houses)