pysch exam 2

learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

types of learning

• behaviorism

• associative

• observation

classical conditioning example

dog salivating to sound of bell

behaviorism

focuses solely on observable behavior (doesn’t take into account mental processes)

behaviorism example

looking at how many times a cat hits a piece of yarn

associative learning

when an organism makes a connection between two events

• classical and operant

conditioning is

the process of learning associations

observational learning

involves observing and imitating another’s behavior

observational learning example

watching how someone runs and imitating that behavior

contingency

conditioned stimulus (CS) regularly followed by unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

contiguity

time between conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

contingency example

Pavlov rang bell (CS) and every time presented food (UCS)

contiguity example

if Pavlov rang bell and then waited 10 mins to give food, much less likely to associate bell with food (no contiguity)

phobias

little albert - watson and rayner (1920)

classical conditioning applications:

• advertising

• placebo effect

• drug tolerance/habituation

• taste aversion

generalization

conditioned responses may also appear after various new neutral stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimuli

generalization exmaple

hearing the sound of a different bell and having the same response

discrimination

conditioned responses appear after the conditioned stimulus, but not after other conditioned stimuli

• generally learned by presenting other conditioned stimuli without the unconditioned stimuli

discrimination example

Pavlov gave food to the dog only after ringing the bell and not other sounds

extinction

conditioned response weakened by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

extinction example

Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food - dog stopped salivating

spontaneous recovery

conditioned response reoccurs after a time delay and without additional learning

spontaneous recovery example

when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated

operant/instrumental conditioning

focuses on the association between behaviors and stimuli that follow them

• the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurance

classical conditioning

focuses on association between stimuli

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

B.F. Skinner

• used operant conditioning chamber (Skinner Box)

• shaping (rewarding approximations of the desired behavior)

reinforcement

increases probability of behavior

positive reinforcement

behavior followed by addition of a desirable stimulus

negative reinforcement

behavior followed by removal of undesirable stimulus

positive punishment

behavior followed by adding undesirable stimulus

negative punishment

behavior followed by taking away desirable stimulus

learned helplessness

an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes

types of reinforcers:

• primary reinforcers

• secondary reinforcers

Primary reinforcers

• innately satisfying

• food, water, sexual pleasure

secondary reinforcers

• become satisfying through experience

• learned by repeated association with a preexisting reinforcement

• token economy

continuous reinforcement

behavior reinforced every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

behavior reinforced only some of the time

schedules of reinforcement

• patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

  • fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval

fixed ratio

reinforcement follows a set number of behaviors

variable ratio

reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of behaviors

fixed interval

reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed

variable interval

reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed

applied behavior analysis/behavior modification

• using operant conditioning principles to

change human behavior

• used in a wide variety of settings

• most widely used method for treating autism

spectrum disorder

four processes of observational learning

• attention

• retention

• motor reproduction

• reinforcement

cultural influences

• behavior is shaped by culture

• learning shaped by values, traditions, norms in a given culture

psychological constraints

• mindset: fixed vs growth

• how to develop a growth mindset

timing of consequences

• immediate vs delayed reinforcement

• immediate vs delayed punishment

• obesity, smoking, alcohol

memory

retention of information/experience over time

three phases of memory

• encoding

• storage

• retrieval

encoding: attention

automatic vs effortful encoding

encoding: attention application

note taking - handwritten better than laptops

• slower writing is “deeper” - more attentive

encoding: levels of processing

• shallow

• intermediate

• deep

shallow

physical, perceptual features

intermediate

category label

deep

meaningful, symbolic characteristics

encoding: elaboration

enhances memory

• better chances of happening on one of the cues and thus finding target

• only one cue leads to the target

• if you don’t find the cue, never find the target

encoding: imagery

verbal code - word or label

• useful for abstract ideas that don’t have an obvious image (ie. justice)

image code - detailed and distinctive

• helpful for concrete images and experiences that can easily be visualized

why memory for pictures is better than memory for words

• images are stored in both codes

  • words are stored only as verbal codes

sensory memory

• detailed information in original sensory form

• very brief duration

  • echoic (auditory) memory

  • iconic (visual) memory

short-term memory

• limited duration (about 30 seconds)

• limited capacity (7 +- 2)

memory span

number of digits a person can report back in order after a single presentation

chunking

grouping or packing information that exceeds 7+-2

rehersal

conscious repetition of information

working memory

alternative to short-term memory

• “mental workbench” on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving

long-term memory

relatively permanent memory that stores information for a long time

explicit long-term memory (declarative)

• episodic memory

• semantic memory

implicit long-term memory (nondeclarative)

• procedural memory

• classical conditioning

• priming

declarative memory

conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated

episodic

autobiographical memories

semantic

knowledge of the world

nondeclarative memory

affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it

procedural memory

skills

priming

activation of information

long term potentiation

neurons that fire together to form a connection

explicit mem brain structures

hippocampus, frontal lobes, and amygdala

implicit mem brain structures

hippocampus, temporal lobes, cerebellum

serial position effect

tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in middle

cues

stimuli that help us remember

• recall

• recognition

encoding specificity

• information present at encoding tends to be effective as retrieval cue

• context-dependent memory

false memories

failure to distinguish real memories (ext source) from self-generated (int source)

autobiographical mem

lifetime periods

• reminiscence bump

• general events

• event-specific information

emotional memories

• flashbulb memories

• traumatic events

• repressed memories: motivated forgetting

  • protecting self from painful memories

ebbinghaus

forgetting curve

encoding failure

information never gets into long term memory

retrieval failure/interference theory

• proactive interference

• retroactive interference

proactive interference

• interfering material learned before target material is

• “I can’t take in any more new info”

retroactive interference

• interfering material learned after target material is

• “too much has happened since I studied it”

decay theory

• passage of time - forgetting

  • does not explain all instances of forgetting

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

• effortful retrieval of known info

• can retrieve some but not all info

prospective mem

• remembering to do something in the future

  • content: remembering what to do

  • timing: remembering when to do it

• absentmindedness

anterograde amnesia

inability to store new information and events.

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve past information and events.

organize

• Review course notes

• Organize material

• Experiment with techniques

encode

• Pay attention.

• Process information.

• Elaborate.

• Use imagery.

• Use chunking.

• Encode early and of

rehearse

• Rewrite notes.

• Talk to people.

• Test yourself.

• Ask yourself questions.

• Be good to your brain.

retrieve

• use retrieval cues

• breathe