Study of Religion, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism

How is Christianity often described in terms of belief?

As a 'belief-centered' religion.

Why is Christianity considered a 'belief-centered' religion?

Because it places a lot of importance on believing certain teachings or statements of faith.

What is a potential misconception about Christianity being 'belief-centered'?

It can be misleading because other religions also have beliefs.

Secularization theory

The theory that as societies become more modern and scientific, religion will become less important and eventually decline.

Essentialism

The idea that a religion has certain basic qualities that make it what it is, and that these qualities stay the same.

The problem with essentialism

Religions are very diverse and change over time. Not every person who belongs to a religion believes or practices it in exactly the same way

Perennialism

The idea that all religions are based on one basic, universal spiritual truth

The problem with perennialism

It can make different religions seem too similar and ignore the real differences between their beliefs and practices.

Generalization

A broad statement about a group based on patterns or examples.

Why generalizations about religion are problematic

They can create stereotypes and make it seem like every person within a religion believes or behaves the same way.

Problem with the term "religion"

There is no single definition of religion that works for every tradition. The word can make very different traditions seem like they are all the same type of thing.

Problem with the term "world religions"

It can oversimplify traditions by grouping them into major categories, ignoring diversity, and implying some traditions are more legitimate than others.

Who was E.B Tylor?

Anthropologist

E.B. Tylor's definition of religion

Religion is essentially belief in spiritual beings.

Problem with E.B Tylor's definition

Not every religion focuses on belief in spiritual beings, so his definition does not fit every religion.

Karl Marx's understanding of religion

Religion reflects and supports existing social and economic inequalities; famously described as the "opium of the people."

Problem of Marx's view

It focuses on social and economic function and may overlook personal religious experiences and beliefs.

Who was William James?

psychologist

William James's definition of religion

Religion involves the individual's personal experiences and feelings in relation to what they consider divine or sacred.

Problem of William James's definition

It focuses on individual experience and does not explain religions emphasizing community, rituals, or social practices.

Who was Emile Durkheim

Sociologist

Émile Durkheim's definition of religion

Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that brings people together into a moral community.

Problem of Durkheim's definition

It focuses on how religion brings society together, so his definition may not fully explain people's personal religious beliefs and experiences

Who was Paul Tillich?

Theologian

Paul Tillich's definition of religion

Religion is a person's "ultimate concern"—what they consider ultimately important in life.

Problem of Tillich's definition

It is so broad that non-traditional things, such as political or personal commitments, could become someone's "ultimate concern."

Who was Sigmund Freud?

Psychologist

Sigmund Freud's understanding of religion

comes partly from human fears, desires, and the need to feel protected or safe.

Problem of Freud's view

It explains religion mainly through psychology and may dismiss the possibility that beliefs have value beyond psychological needs.

Friedrich Schleiermacher's definition of religion

Religion is based on a person's feeling of dependence on something greater than themselves.

Limitation of Schleiermacher's definition

It emphasizes personal feelings and may not account for the importance of rituals, institutions, communities, and practices.

Functionalist definition of religion

A definition that focuses on what religion does rather than what religion is.

Example of a functionalist definition

"Religion is a system that brings people together and creates social unity."

Aryan invasion thesis controversy

Claims that they invaded India and displaced earlier populations; controversial because evidence is debated and it has been used for political/racial purposes.

Shift from Vedic to Classical Hinduism

Early Vedic religion emphasized rituals and sacrifices, whereas Classical Hinduism increasingly emphasized karma, reincarnation, dharma, moksha, and ultimate reality.

Arjuna's refusal to fight

He struggled with the moral consequences of war because the people he would have to kill included his relatives, teachers, and friends.

Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita

A major Hindu deity who serves as Arjuna's charioteer and spiritual teacher, instructing him on dharma, action, devotion, and reality.

Puja

A Hindu ritual of worship or offering to a deity.

Vedas

Ancient sacred Hindu texts and the earliest major scriptures of the Vedic tradition.

Early Vedic religion characteristics

Focused heavily on ritual sacrifices, offerings, priests, and relationships with various deities.

Upanishads

Philosophical Hindu texts exploring Brahman, Atman, karma, reincarnation, and liberation (moksha).

Mantra

A sacred sound, word, or phrase repeated during religious practice or meditation (e.g., "Hare Krishna").

Sannyasin

A person who renounces ordinary worldly life in order to focus on spiritual liberation.

Bhakti

Devotion to a deity, often expressed through love, worship, prayer, and devotion.

Darshan

The experience of seeing and being seen by a deity, often through an image or statue.

Siddhārtha's enlightenment location

At Bodh Gaya, while meditating under the Bodhi tree.

Siddhārtha's father's protection

His father wanted to protect him from suffering and keep him attached to palace life so he would not pursue a religious life.

The three sights Siddhārtha saw

Old age, sickness, and death.

Siddhārtha's goal after seeing the three sights

He wanted to find a way to overcome suffering.

Inspiration in the forest

He encountered ascetics/religious practitioners who had renounced ordinary life in search of spiritual truth.

"Buddha"

Meaning "Awakened One," the title Siddhārtha received after attaining enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.

Rains retreat outcome

It contributed to the development of permanent monasteries where monks and nuns could stay during the rainy season.

Women in the sangha

The Buddha eventually allowed women to join, creating the bhikkhuni/nuns' sangha, though with additional rules.

Buddhism and gods

recognizes that gods may exist, but they cannot provide liberation from suffering, as even gods are subject to samsara.

The Three Jewels (Triratna)

Buddha (the awakened teacher), Dharma (the teachings/path), and Sangha (the monastic community).

Bodhisattva

A being who seeks enlightenment but is motivated by compassion to help other beings achieve liberation.

Jātaka stories

Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha.

Noble Eightfold Path

Right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Medical analogy for the Four Noble Truths

Diagnosis (suffering exists), Cause (suffering has a cause/craving), Cure (suffering can end), Treatment (the Noble Eightfold Path).

"Thus have I heard..."

The standard first line of a Buddhist text commonly called a Sutta (or Sutra in Sanskrit).

Three Marks of Existence

Dukkha (suffering/dissatisfaction), anicca (impermanence), and anatta (no permanent or unchanging self).

Five Precepts (Pañcasīla)

Rules to avoid killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech/lying, and intoxicants that cloud the mind.

Ten Precepts (Dasasīla)

Expanded ethical rules followed by monastics regarding entertainment, adornment, luxurious beds, eating at improper times, and handling money.

Paṭiccasamuppāda

Dependent origination — the idea that things arise because of conditions and causes; nothing exists completely independently.

Merit (puñña)

Positive karma gained through good actions, generosity, morality, and religious practice.

Demerit (apuñña/papa)

Negative karma resulting from harmful or unwholesome actions.

Loving-kindness meditation

A Buddhist practice of developing mettā, or loving-kindness, toward oneself and all living beings.

Guru Gobind Singh and Guru Granth Sahib

to be the eternal/final Sikh Guru, ending the line of human Gurus.

Golden Temple's four entrances

Symbolize that people from all four directions and all backgrounds are welcome.

Sikhism's religious influences

Hinduism and Islam.

Guru Nanak and the sacred thread

He refused to wear it, rejecting the idea that spiritual worth depends on caste or external symbols, emphasizing inner morality instead.

Langar's social challenge

It challenged the Hindu caste system and social hierarchy.

Sikh homeland

The Indian state of Punjab.

Sikhism and Islam commonalities

Both emphasize belief in one God and reject idolatry/polytheism.

Sikhism and Hinduism commonalities

Ideas such as karma, reincarnation/samsara, and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Sikhism and monasticism

Sikhs refuse to become monks because Sikhism emphasizes living as a householder, participating in family and society.

Waheguru repetition

Called naam simran in Sikhism.

Amritdhari Sikh and hair

Cannot cut their hair; they are expected to keep their hair uncut (kesh).

Ādi Granth

The original compilation of Sikh sacred scripture, which became the basis of the Guru Granth Sahib.

Ang

Meaning "limb" or "body part"; Sikhs refer to pages of the Guru Granth Sahib as?

Ik Oankar

Means there is one God / One divine reality.

Khaṇḍā

A major Sikh symbol featuring a double-edged sword, a circle, and two kirpans.

Khalsa

The community of initiated Sikhs, established by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.

The Five Ks (Panj Kakaar)

Kesh (uncut hair), Kangha (wooden comb), Kara (steel/iron bracelet), Kachera (undergarment), and Kirpan (ceremonial sword).

Sansar/ samsara

The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Guru

A spiritual teacher or guide.

Amrit

The nectar used in the Sikh initiation ceremony into the Khalsa.

Kirtan

The singing or recitation of Sikh sacred hymns, usually accompanied by music.

Seva

Selfless service to others.

Naam Simran

Meditation or remembrance of God's name, often through repetition of names such as Waheguru.

Brahman

The Ultimate, supreme reality that connects to everything in the universe