CH 2. Theories of Human Development

Childhood in the middle ages

• viewed as miniature adults

• expected to participate in all aspects of life, entering workforce by 7, marrying by 12

• life expectancy was between 30-40

• high infant morality and fatal diseases caused lack of attachment to children

Children in the 18th and 19th Century

• children are innocent and in need of adult protection and discipline

• education for children began to grow

• puritan view on human development

• John Locke and Tabula Rasa

• influence of the Industrial Revolution on childhood

Puritan View on Human Development

children are born into original sin and it is the responsibilities of the parents and adults to provide strict discipline

• sin left behind from Adam’s sin

Blank Slate - John Locke and Tabula Rasa

we are born without innate ideas and knowledge is determined by experience and perception

Influence of the industrial Revolution on Childhood

• increased numbers of workers, including children, despite long hours and dangerous conditions

• child labor preferred because children were more docile and cheaper to employ

Children in the 20th Century

• laws restricting child labor, children no longer an economic necessity

• emergence of economically “worthless” but emotionally “priceless” child

• children expensive, in reutnr provide love, smiles, and emotional satisfaction, promote feeling of being a family

Children in 21st century

• children viewed as valuable and entitled to protection from harm

• deserving of life of full good emotional, mental, and physical health

Psychosocial Theories

development over the lifespan

Before Sigmund Freud

• irregularities or variations in human experience were viewed as demonic possessions or moral deficits

• treatment - exorcisms, witch-hunting, imprisonment, asylum

Psychoanalytic Theory - Freud Psychosocial

• focuses on childhood experiences, characterological change, the unconscious, insight

• goal - make unconscious conscious by gaining insight into current patterns with goal of changing personality, resolving underlying conflicts, attaining freedom from past

Personality Structure - Freud Psychosocial

• id ego, super ego

• people have inherent pathologies, spurred unconscious drives, which they need to address and overcome

Id

pleasure and instinct (pleasure principle)

ego

reality and logic (reality principle)

superego

society and morality (morality priniciple)

Psychosexual stages - frued psychosocial

• oral (birth-18 months)

• anal (18 months - 3 years)

• phallic (3-5 years)

• latent (5 - puberty)

• genital (puberty and on)

Oral (birth -18 months)

pleasure of sucking and eating. Trust and security are major concerns

Anal (18 months - 3 years)

pleasure received from controlling one’s excretory functions

Phallic (3-5 years)

attends to children’s fascination with their genitalia and other bodily functions

• electra complex

• oedipal complex

electra complex

girls unconsciously yearn for their fathers

oedipus complex

boys unconsciously yearn for their mothers

latent stage (5 - puberty)

calm after torment of previous years

genital stage (puberty and on)

conscious and unconscious behaviors manifest as a result of the culmination of early childhood experiences

defense mechanisms

protect against unwanted anxiety, experiences, or pain, resulting from the ego’s inability to balance the id and superego

• repression, denial, sublimation, projection, reaction formation, displacement, rationalization, comprehension, acting out, splitting

repression

to push aside unwanted or painful thoughts, feelings, or experiences involuntarily. Repression operates on a primarily unconscious level

• experiences trauma may repress memories in order to cope

denial

to ignore, turn away from, or refuse to acknowledge painful realities that others can detect. Denial may occur at preconscious or conscious levels as well

• A doctor has become addicted to alcohol and other drugs. The doctor is late for work or absent regularly and has been performing poorly, but he does not see a problem.

Sublimation

channel energy from unwanted or unacceptable impulses into more socially appropriate avenues

• engage in sports or physical activities to discharge aggressive urges

Projection

to attribute one’s own unacceptable desires, behaviors, thoughts, feelings, etc. to others and not to oneself.

• One may criticize coworkers for being stingy with a lunch bill but then fail to chip in regularly or consistently tip poorly

Reaction Formation

to express the opposite impulse in an effort to conceal one’s true stance. This commonly occurs with repression.

• devote their lives to promoting the sanctity of marriage, but then engage in multiple extramarital affairs

Displacement

redirect one’s feelings or responses from one object toward a safer target when the original object is inaccessible

• Before work, a man has a fight with his partner. When he arrives, he yells at his subordinate

Rationalization

to make excuses for one’s impulses to provide reassurance and offer incorrect explanations

• In order to cope with not getting the desired grade on an assignment, a student starts to believe that the teacher is unfair and that the grade does not matter

introjection

to accept values and standards of others without questions, critique, or analysis

• a child may espouse and articulate a caregiver’s exact political. beliefs

compensation

to conceal perceived limitations by developing strengths elsewhere

• Individuals who may not possess physical characteristics deemed “ideal” by society may focus on and excel at academics and school

acting out

to deal with emotional conflicts with actions rather than by reflecting or being open to feelings

• children may throw or break when thir caregivers are fighting

Splitting

to fail to integrate positive and negative aspects of self or others, resulting in imbalanced vacillation between polar opposites.

• People may view others as “all good” or “all bad” but then go back and forth between idealizing others and devaluing them

Psychosocial theories - Sigmund Freud

• psychoanalytic theory

• intrapsychic

• personality structure

• psychosexual stages

• defense mechanisms

New-freudians

• emphasis on interactions and interpersonal relationships, not simply intrapsychic events

• still insight-oriented, primarily deterministic, and still focused a great deal on attention on intrapyschic disturbances

Carl Jung

• student and friend of Freud

• Developed analytical psychology

Analytical Psychology - Carl jung

• focused on later years of an adult’s life

• goal - client to achieve individuation

• archetypes ot understand unconscious (pesona, shadow, animal, and animus)

individuation

a balanced integration and expression of one’s unconscious and conscious

Individual Psychology - Alfred Adler

• teleological (goal-directed)

• each individual has private logic that consists of core assumptions, beliefs, and philosophies about life

• examine faulty conclusions clients make about private logic, clients would be able to overcome feelings of inferiority and live more meaningful lives

• Key concepts: social interest, purposeful behavior, belonging

• popular methods: examination of birth order, sibling relationships, early recollections

Karen Horney

• more responsive to gender dynamics

• reworks Freud’s notion of “penis envy”

• three coping strategies (postures) to protect themselves and provide safety from anxiety

Helpless - coping strategies (Horney)

compliantly moving toward others

Aggressive - coping strategies (Horney)

moving against others to dominate them

Detached - coping strategies (Horney)

moving away to avoid hurt or abandonment

Harry Stack Sullivan

• interpersonal therapy

• Methods: used interpersonal relationships and group counseling settings to explore and reassess early experiences and the meanings they currently hold

Interpersonal Therapy - Harry Stack Sullivan

• believed that relationships between people served to form the personality and were both the cause and the cure of psychological problems

• core self consists of “reflected appraisals” that are constructed through interpersonal relationships

• parataxis distortions

Parataxis distortions

the patterns of skewed or irrational perceptions people have regarding others’ perceptions of themselves, based on childhood experiences

• danger: tend to yield self-fulfilling prophecies

Psychosocial Stages - Erik Erikson

people who successfully address these central goals move forward in a healthy and fulfilled manner while those who do not are at risk for remaining stuck or regressing

• trust vs mistrust

• autonomy vs. shame

• initiative vs. guilt

• industry vs. inferiority

• identity vs. role confusino

• intimacy vs. isolation

• generativity vs. stagnation

• integrity vs. despair

Trust vs. Mistrust - Infancy

Infants develop trust within secure caregiver relationships when their basic needs are met

• If physical and emotional needs are not meet, the child may develop a mistrusting attitude toward others.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - 1-3yrs Toddlerhood

children explore the world and experiment

• If parents or caregivers do not promote autonomy, children may lack self-reliance as they develop

initiative vs. guilt - 3-6yrs Preschool

focus is a basic sense of competence

• If others monopolize decision-making on behalf of these children, they become guilty and reluctant to make their own decisions.

industry vs. inferiority - 6-12yrs school age

focus is on goal-setting and achievement

• Without success at this task, feelings of inadequacy may develop.

identity vs. role confusion - adolscence/puberty

individuals explore limits, boundaries, meaning, identity, and goals

• Failure to achieve a coherent identity may yield confusion

intimacy vs. isolation - 18-35 yrs young adulthood

the major task is the development of and security within intimate relationships

• Without these, alienation and isolation may persist

Generativity vs. Stagnation - 35-60yrs middle adulthood

focus is on transcending self and family and focusing on the next generation

• People in this stage must reconcile differences between their aspirations/dreams and their actual accomplishments

integrity vs. despair - 60+yrs

coming to terms with one’s life

• People look back either with a sense of pride and contentment, or perhaps with feelings of failure, guilt, and despair.

Personality and Ego Development - Jane Loevinger

• examines interpersonal cognitive, and more development across the lifespan

• progression through 9 possible stages (pre-social, impulsive, self-protective, conformist, self-aware, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous, and integrated

• growth and development relate to how individuals respond to new information or environmental stimuli

Identity Development - Arthur Chickering

• 7 vectors - areas that individuals navigate as they grow and develop

• 18-22 years old

• vectors are not sequential, people may negotiate multiple vectors simultaneously or revisit them over time

  • managing emotions, moving through autonomy to interdependence, establishing identity, developing mature interpersonal relationships, developing purpose, and developing integrity

Sociocultural Theories

emphasize environments, interactions, and systems in which people are embedded

Lev Vygotsky

examined social processes occurring around children

• Zone of proximal development

• scaffolding

• private speech

• developmental problems occur when external support is insufficient or lacking

Zone of proximal development - Lev Vygotsky

the difference or distance between what children can achieve individually versus what they can achieve with adult guidance and support

Scaffolding - Lev Vygotsky

the process that helps children move from apposition of an inability to complete challenging tasks to a position where they can eventually complete the tasks independently

Private Speech - Lev Vygotsky

when an individual talks aloud to oneself and not to others for the purpose of self-guidance; aids in mental processing of challenging tasks

Multigenerational Family Systems - Murray Bowen

• previous generations greatly affect the development of future generations’ egos

• goal of family counseling - differentiation of self

differentiation of self

separating oneself from one’s family of origin and distinguishing one’s emotions from one’s cognitions

• Avoid the fusion of individuals with one another, and each member’s
  thoughts and feelings, which may result in impasse or stagnation

Family Life Cycle development - Carter and McGoldrick

• genograms

• families navigate development and unexpected transitions over time by completing specific tasks

Genograms

pictorial, symbolic representation that elucidate the structure and processes of multiple generations within a family system

Leaving the home - young adulthood

individuals accept emotional and financial responsibilities for themselves

joining of families - new couple

couple becomes a new system

childbirth/childrearing

new members are accepted and incorporated into the system

middle marriage - families with adolescents

need for more flexible boundaries as adolescents experiment with independence

launching children/moving on

marital dyad must be renegotiated

later life

acceptance of new generational roles

Ecological Model of Child Development - Uri Brofenbrenner

Individuals do not exist in a vacuum, but in a vast, complex, interwoven net of social structures including families, communities, local and global economies, political organizations, and historical eras.

• Different system levels include: microsystem, mesosystem,
  exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

Multicultural Theories of development

help attend to real differences that may exist among individuals and groups

• In addition, these theories strive to assist professional counselors in being more effective, respectful, and ethical with clients from diverse backgrounds

White Racial Identity Development

European-Americans are a dominant and privileged group in the United States and because they outnumber other racial and ethnic groups, it is common for European-Americans to experience their lives oblivious to issues of their own racial identities and race privilege

• contact, disintegration, reintegration, pseudo-independence, immersion/emersion, autonomy

contact - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

individuals are oblivious to issues of race and racial identity.

disintegration - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

questioning of beliefs causes cognitive dissonance.

reintegration - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

actively or passively believe in white superiority and dominance

pseudo-independence - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

beginning of defining a positive White racial identity emphasizing
intellectual understanding

immersion/emersion - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

individuals replace old misinformation and stereotypes with
accurate information

autonomy - abandoning racism and developing a
positive identity

Whites are able to continue commitment to understanding and
acknowledging racism and privilege

Black Racial Identity Development

pre-encounter, encounter, immersion/emersion, internalization, internalization/commitment

Pre-encounter - Black Racial Identity Development

whites are primary reference groups

Encounter - Black Racial Identity Development

An event helps a person reflect on race/racial identity

Immersion/emersion - Black Racial Identity Development

• immersion consists of dichotomous thinking that rejects Whiteness and embraces Black identity

• emersion represents a lessening of rigidity and reactivity

Internalization - Black Racial Identity Development

black identity based on appreciation, flexibility, and love instead of hatred or rejection of others

Internalization-Commitment - Black Racial Identity Development

increasing levels of social and political commitment

Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

• Biracial indicates a person conceived by people of different races.

• Five stage model addressed some of the complexities associated with being biracial:

  • personal identity, choice of group categorization, enmeshment/denial, appreciation, integration

personal identity - Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

related to self-esteem, internalization of values
and prejudices, and identification with reference groups

choice of group categorization - Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

the push to identify with a particular group, often accompanied by alienation and crisis for the individual

enmeshment/denial - Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

often yields confusion and guilt about choosing a group to which to belong

Appreciation - Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

valuing and learning about multiple identities

Integration - Biracial Identity Development (Preston)

the development of a secure, stable, integrated identity

Multiple Heritage Identity Development (MHID, Henriksen & Paladino)

• Integrates many facets of a person’s identity such as socioeconomic status, gender, religion, language, national origin, and sexual identity.

• May better reflect the intersectionality of people’s identities and the nuances of their lived experiences.

Biological Theories of Human Development: Darwin

Theory of evolution based on the assertion that all living
species have descended over time from common ancestry

• natural selection

• observing children could provide important information related to the evaluation of the human species

natural selection

differential reproduction or the process whereby certain traits or characteristics of a species that are more adaptable to the environment survive

ethological Theory

study of the adaptive and evolutionary basis of animal behavior, particularly behaviors of species that promote their survival

• species have inborn/instinctual responses shared by all members of that species, and these instincts guide individuals to similar developmental paths

• methodology for studying
  human behaviors and a theory to explain instinctive behavior

attachment theory

an emotional connection with important people in one’s life.

• Attachment leads to a sense of security and gives people pleasure as they interact with other people to whom they are attached

Development of Attachment Theory - John Bowlby

• The first to apply the concepts of ethology to the infant-caregiver relationship.

• While working in a home for maladjusted boys, he observed that disruptions in the mother-child relationship could lead to later child psychopathology