Political Ideas

What is the central focus of liberalism?

The individual: their freedom, rights, dignity and capacity for self-development.

What is individualism in liberalism?

The belief that individuals are the most important unit of society and should be free to shape their own lives.

What is the liberal view of human nature?

People are rational, autonomous and capable of making choices, although liberals disagree about how far they need support.

What is the liberal view of freedom?

Individuals should be free from unjustified restrictions and able to pursue their own goals.

What is negative freedom?

Freedom from external interference or constraints; being left alone to act.

What is positive freedom?

The ability and resources to develop your potential and make meaningful choices.

What is liberal equality?

Equal moral worth and equal basic rights, with equality of opportunity as an important goal.

What is rationalism in liberal thought?

The belief that people can use reason to make decisions and improve society.

What is toleration in liberalism?

Allowing different beliefs and lifestyles, provided they do not unjustifiably harm others.

What is constitutionalism?

Limiting government through a constitution, laws and defined powers.

What is consent in liberalism?

Government is legitimate when its authority rests on the consent of the governed.

What is classical liberalism?

A tradition stressing individual liberty, limited government, private property and free markets.

What is modern liberalism?

A tradition arguing that state action may be needed to secure real freedom and fair opportunities.

How do classical liberals view the state?

As a necessary but limited institution that protects rights, property and order.

How do modern liberals view the state?

As a potential enabler of freedom through education, welfare and action against disadvantage.

How do classical liberals view the economy?

They generally favour private property, competition and a free market.

How do modern liberals view the economy?

They accept markets but support regulation and welfare where needed to reduce barriers and inequality.

What is the key debate between classical and modern liberalism?

Whether freedom mainly requires non-interference or also state action that enables people to flourish.

How do liberals generally view society?

Society is made up of individuals with diverse interests; cooperation should respect individual rights.

What is the harm principle?

Mill's idea that coercion is justified to prevent harm to others, not merely to protect someone from themselves.

What are Locke's natural rights?

Life, liberty and property; people possess them by nature, not because government grants them.

What is Locke's state of nature?

A condition of freedom and equality governed by natural law, but lacking a reliable impartial judge.

What does Locke mean by natural law?

A law discoverable by reason which requires people to respect others' lives, liberty and possessions.

What is Locke's view of individualism?

Individuals are free and equal, with rights that exist before political society.

Why do people create government for Locke?

To protect natural rights more securely through known laws and impartial enforcement.

What is fiduciary power in Locke's theory?

Government holds power in trust for the people and must use it for their benefit.

When may people resist or remove government according to Locke?

When rulers breach the trust, violate rights or act without the people's consent.

Is Locke a classical or modern liberal?

A key classical liberal: he defends natural rights, consent, limited government and property.

What is Mill's criticism of hedonism?

He rejects reducing happiness to simple pleasure; higher intellectual and moral pleasures matter.

What are Mill's higher pleasures?

Pleasures involving intellect, imagination, moral feeling and developed human capacities.

What is individuality for Mill?

The development of a distinctive character through free choice and experimentation in living.

Why does Mill defend freedom of thought and discussion?

Even unpopular opinions may be true, partly true or useful in testing accepted beliefs.

What is the self-regarding / other-regarding distinction?

Self-regarding actions mainly affect the individual; other-regarding actions affect other people.

When may society restrict an individual's conduct for Mill?

When it is necessary to prevent harm to others.

Why does Mill value integrity and self-respect?

Independent judgement and self-directed choices help people develop character and dignity.

What is Mill's view of individuality?

It is essential to human progress and should be protected from social conformity.

How does Mill's thought relate to classical liberalism?

His harm principle and defence of non-interference strongly support individual liberty.

What is Rawls's theory of justice?

Justice as fairness: society's basic institutions should be arranged on fair terms for free and equal citizens.

What is the original position?

A hypothetical situation in which people choose principles of justice without knowing their own social position.

What is the veil of ignorance?

A device preventing people from knowing their class, talents, race or other personal advantages when choosing principles.

What are Rawls's two principles of justice?

Equal basic liberties for all; social and economic inequalities must meet fair opportunity and benefit the least advantaged.

What is the equal basic liberties principle?

Everyone should have an equal scheme of fundamental freedoms compatible with the same freedoms for others.

What is fair equality of opportunity?

People with similar ability and willingness should have genuinely fair chances regardless of social background.

What is the difference principle?

Inequalities are acceptable only when they work to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged.

How does Rawls differ from classical liberalism?

He accepts inequalities and markets only within institutions that secure fair opportunity and benefit the least advantaged.

Why is Rawls associated with modern liberalism?

He supports equal basic liberty alongside redistribution and institutions that make opportunity genuinely fair.

What is T. H. Green's idea of positive freedom?

Freedom is the real power to develop and act on one's capacities, not merely absence of restraint.

What is Green's criticism of negative freedom alone?

Formal non-interference is inadequate when poverty, ignorance or addiction prevent people acting freely.

What is self-development for Green?

Realising one's capacities and pursuing worthwhile goals as a responsible member of society.

What role does the state have for Green?

It should remove obstacles to self-development, for example through education and public health.

Does Green support unlimited state power?

No. State action is justified when it enables freedom and the common good, not when it needlessly controls people.

Why is Green a modern liberal?

He links genuine liberty to enabling conditions and a positive, supportive role for the state.

What is Wollstonecraft's central claim about women's rights?

Women are rational human beings and deserve equal education, rights and opportunities.

Why does Wollstonecraft argue for women's education?

Education develops reason and virtue, enabling women to become independent citizens.

What does Wollstonecraft criticise about aristocracy?

Inherited privilege and rank undermine merit, reason and genuine equality.

What is Wollstonecraft's challenge to revolutionary ideas?

She argues that claims of universal rights are inconsistent if women are excluded.

What is the significance of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman?

It applies Enlightenment principles of reason, liberty and equality to women's status.

How does Wollstonecraft relate to liberalism?

She extends liberal rights and equality to women while challenging social and educational barriers.

What is Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique about?

It challenges the ideal that women's fulfilment should be confined to housework and motherhood.

What did Friedan call the 'problem that has no name'?

The dissatisfaction and lack of fulfilment experienced by many women confined to domestic roles.

What did Friedan campaign for?

Equal opportunities, legal rights and access to education and employment for women.

How did Friedan contribute to the US women's movement?

She helped mobilise second-wave feminism and co-founded the National Organization for Women.

How does Friedan connect feminism and liberalism?

She uses equality before the law and individual opportunity to challenge sex discrimination.

What is the central conservative concern?

Maintaining order, stability and continuity while recognising human limitations.

What is the conservative view of human nature?

People are imperfect, psychologically dependent and limited in reason; they need order and guidance.

What is the conservative view of society?

An organic, interconnected community shaped by institutions, customs and shared traditions.

What is tradition in conservatism?

Inherited practices and institutions that embody accumulated experience and provide social stability.

What is authority in conservatism?

Legitimate leadership and institutions that provide guidance, order and social cohesion.

Why do conservatives value private property?

It encourages responsibility and independence, provides security and supports social order.

What is pragmatism in conservatism?

A cautious, practical approach that prefers tested change to abstract schemes.

What is the conservative view of the state?

The state should maintain order and authority; conservatives differ over how extensive its role should be.

What is traditional conservatism?

A tradition emphasising hierarchy, authority, tradition, organic society and cautious change.

What is the New Right?

A modern conservative movement combining economic liberalism with social or national conservatism.

What is the New Right's neoliberal strand?

It favours free markets, competition, privatisation, low taxation and a limited economic state.

What is the New Right's neoconservative strand?

It stresses authority, law and order, national identity, traditional values and a strong state in social matters.

How does traditional conservatism differ from the New Right?

Traditional conservatism stresses continuity and organic society; the New Right more strongly promotes markets and individual choice.

How do conservatives view equality?

They generally favour natural differences and hierarchy over enforced equality of outcome.

How do conservatives view change?

Change should usually be gradual, cautious and based on experience rather than radical redesign.

What is the conservative free-market argument?

Markets encourage choice, competition, enterprise and responsibility, though traditional conservatives may distrust unchecked markets.

What is Hobbes's view of human nature?

People are driven by appetites, aversions and self-preservation, and can become rivals in pursuit of scarce goods.

What is the state of nature for Hobbes?

Without common authority, insecurity and fear create a condition of potential war of all against all.

What are Hobbes's laws of nature?

Rational rules urging peace where possible, including seeking peace and keeping covenants.

Why is a sovereign needed for Hobbes?

A powerful common authority enforces agreements and protects people from violence and insecurity.

What powers should Hobbes's sovereign possess?

Sovereign power must be undivided and strong enough to maintain peace and security.

What liberty does Hobbes preserve?

Individuals retain liberty where the law is silent and an inalienable right of self-preservation.

How does Hobbes justify obedience?

People authorise a sovereign to escape insecurity; obedience is tied to the sovereign's ability to protect them.

Why is Hobbes associated with authoritarian conservatism?

His pessimistic view of human nature supports strong authority and order, although his theory begins with individual self-preservation.

What is Burke's view of tradition?

Traditions embody inherited wisdom and should not be discarded lightly.

What is Burke's criticism of rationalism?

Abstract reason cannot fully understand complex society or replace accumulated experience.

What is Burke's organic view of society?

Society is a partnership between the living, the dead and those yet to be born.

What was Burke's response to the French Revolution?

He condemned its radicalism, violence and attempt to rebuild society on abstract principles.

How did Burke view the American Revolution?

He was more sympathetic to the colonists' defence of established rights and inherited liberties.

What is Burkean reform?

Gradual, prudent change that preserves valuable institutions while correcting genuine problems.

What were Burke's Whig principles?

Defence of constitutional liberty, inherited rights, balanced government and opposition to arbitrary power.

What is Anti-Jacobinism?

Opposition to the radical revolutionary ideas associated with the Jacobins and the French Revolution.

What is Oakeshott's view of political knowledge?

Politics is a practical activity learned through experience, not simply the application of abstract theory.

What is Oakeshott's criticism of rationalism?

Rationalists wrongly assume political life can be redesigned from universal rules and technical plans.

What is the Politics of Faith?

The belief that government can use power to achieve a comprehensive perfection or salvation of society.

What is the Politics of Scepticism?

The belief that government should be limited and mainly maintain order, preventing things from going badly.

Why does Oakeshott defend tradition?

Tradition contains practical knowledge and continuity that abstract reformers may overlook.