Biological Bases of Behavior: Genetics, Brain Structures, Nervous System, and Neural Communication

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the biological foundations of psychology, including genetics and eugenics, cerebral structures and lobes, the limbic system, peripheral and central nervous systems, cellular neuroanatomy, neural firing mechanisms, neurotransmitters, endocrine hormones, neuroplasticity, hemispheric specialization, and neuroimaging methodologies.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those genes to offspring.

Nature (Genetics)

The innate biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Nurture (Environment)

The environmental factors and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Twin Studies

Studies that examine similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors.

Adoption Studies

Studies that investigate similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.

Family Studies

Studies analyzing similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors in a family unit.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring.

Genetic Predisposition

An inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones.

Francis Galton

The founder of eugenics who, in the late 19th century, promoted theories and practices aimed at improving the genetic qualities of human populations.

CRISPR (in Eugenics Context)

A modern gene-editing technology that raises ethical dilemmas regarding the potential revival of eugenics-like practices under the guise of genetic enhancement.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for managing higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, reasoning, learning, and decision-making; divided into four lobes.

Association Areas

Parts of the brain that take information from all over the body or senses and put it together to help understand the world.

Frontal Lobes

Lobes located at the front of the brain involved in higher-level thinking, executive functions, reasoning, decision-making, personality, and emotional regulation.

Prefrontal Cortex

A region located in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, decision-making, planning, working memory, attention, social behavior, and impulse control.

Motor Cortex

A region located in the frontal lobe responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements of the body.

Executive Functioning

A set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to organize, regulate behavior, and manage time.

Parietal Lobes

Lobes located at the top of the brain primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness.

Somatosensory Cortex

A cortex located in the parietal lobe responsible for processing sensations from skin, muscles, and joints.

Occipital Lobes

Lobes located at the back of the brain primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eye.

Temporal Lobes

Lobes located behind the temples (sides of the brain) responsible for processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and coordination between hemispheres.

Brainstem

The oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-maintaining functions like breathing, heart rate, sleep, and waking up.

Medulla

A structure located at the base of the brainstem that regulates essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness.

Cerebellum

A structure located at the back of the brain below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

Limbic System

A set of brain structures located beneath the cerebral cortex involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.

Reward Center

A network of brain structures primarily formed in the limbic system that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them.

Thalamus

A relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, and taste, to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A small but powerful structure located below the thalamus responsible for regulating essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Pituitary Gland

A small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the "master gland" due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body.

Hippocampus

A small structure located within the brain's temporal lobe, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories.

Amygdala

A small almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain's temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Nervous System

The body's communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, serving as the command center for processing information, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The division of the nervous system consisting of nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord, connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for "fight or flight" responses, activating bodily systems in times of stress or danger.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for "rest and digest," promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after stress or danger.

Somatic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movement and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

Neuron

A specialized cell that serves as the basic building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells of the nervous system that provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and organs, enabling and controlling voluntary and involuntary movement.

Sensory Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors (in the skin, eyes, and organs) to the central nervous system.

Interneurons

Nerve cells located within the central nervous system that serve as connectors, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway controlling reflex actions that allows for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli and potential danger.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron and produce a response.

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron, triggered when stimulation causes the inside of the cell to become more positively charged.

All-or-None Law

The principle stating that once a neuron reaches its threshold of stimulation, it will fire an action potential at full strength.

Depolarization

The phase of an action potential during which the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to an influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions.

Refractory Period

A brief period of time following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential.

Resting Potential

The default, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals.

Reuptake

The process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron that originally released them.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A chronic autoimmune disease affecting the central nervous system (including the brain and spinal cord) in which the immune system breaks down the myelin sheath.

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles, resulting in blocked neurotransmitters.

Presynaptic Terminal

The end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron, where neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic Cleft

The tiny gap between the presynaptic terminal and the postsynaptic neuron.

Postsynaptic Membrane

The membrane of the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron, which contains receptors for neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers synthesized within presynaptic neurons and released into the synaptic cleft to transmit signals across synapses.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring, helping to calm brain activity.

Glutamate

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, playing a key role in synaptic plasticity and neuronal communication.

GABA

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; promotes relaxation and decreases anxiety.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters produced by the brain that act as natural opiates, providing natural pain relief and mood boosting; released by exercise.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to regulate target cells or organs.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger.

Leptin

A hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy balance and appetite, acting on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure.

Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to rewire, reorganize, and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes.

Split-Brain Research

Studies of individuals who have undergone a corpus callosotomy, a surgical procedure disconnecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

Contralateral Hemisphere Organization

The phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

Hemispheric Specialization

The concept, explored through split-brain research, that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities.

Broca's Area

A region located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere responsible for speech production and language processing.

Broca's Aphasia

A language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, often resulting from stroke or brain injury, leading to difficulty producing speech.

Wernicke's Area

A region located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere involved in language comprehension and understanding.

Wernicke's Aphasia

A language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, typically resulting from stroke or brain injury, leading to difficulty understanding language.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels.

Brain Lesioning

A research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals.