POL 161 Midterm Study Guide: Comparative Politics Chapters 1-4

Comprehensive practice flashcards in Question-and-Answer style covering Chapters 1 through 4 of the POL 161 Comparative Politics midterm study guide.

How is Comparative Politics defined, and how does its focus differ from International Relations?

Comparative Politics is a subfield of political science that seeks to advance understanding of political structures globally by looking first within countries and then across designated countries. In contrast, International Relations primarily looks across countries.

How are institutions defined in political science, and what is the difference between formal and informal institutions?

Institutions are structural features of society encompassing rules, norms, and values. Formal institutions have clear, formalized rules often backed by enforcement authority (such as the Supreme Court), while informal institutions consist of unwritten rules and conventions (such as political culture or logrolling).

What are the three traditional ways comparativists compare political entities?

1. Area Studies: Scholarship organized geographically and multidisciplinary, rooted in the age of empires.
2. Cross-National Studies: Research transcending national boundaries by systematically comparing data from two or more nations, rooted in the 1950s behavioral revolution.
3. Subnational Studies: Comparing subnational governments within or across countries.

How do federal and unitary governments differ in their distribution of sovereignty, and what is devolution?

In federal governments, sovereignty is shared between national and subnational levels, whereas in unitary governments, power is concentrated nationally. Devolution is the deliberate transfer of power from the central government to a lower level.

What are the four core characteristics of scientific research in political science?

1. Inference (drawing conclusions about unobserved phenomena based on observed data)
2. Public procedures (explicit, codified methods for reliability assessment)
3. Recognition that conclusions are uncertain
4. The content is the method used

What are the six general components of the scientific method, and what does it mean for a research question to be falsifiable?

The six components are Question, Observation (Literature Review), Hypothesis (Theory Development), Testing, Analysis, and Reporting of Findings. A research question is falsifiable when it is able to be logically contradicted through empirical testing.

How do inductive and deductive reasoning differ in theory development, and what roles do independent and dependent variables play?

Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to a hypothesis, whereas deductive reasoning moves from an inference to testing. In research, independent variables represent the cause or explanatory factors, while dependent variables represent the effect or outcome.

What are the four basic approaches to research in comparative politics?

1. Experimental Method: Seeks causal inference in controlled settings, relying heavily on statistics.
2. Statistical Methods: Uses mathematical techniques for Large-N data to discern correlation.
3. Comparative Method: Analyzes a small/intermediate number of cases, often using cross-case analysis.
4. Case Studies: Intensive look into a single case or comparative case study of two or more cases, vital for theory development.

What is the distinction between correlation and causation, and what is a causal mechanism?

Correlation does not equal causation; causation means a change in one variable verifiably causes an effect in another. A causal mechanism refers to portable concepts that explain how and why a hypothesized cause contributes to a particular outcome in small-N research.

How do John Stuart Mill's Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD) and Most Different Systems Design (MDSD) differ?

Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD) uses cases that are similar but have different outcomes (derived from the 'method of difference'). Most Different Systems Design (MDSD) uses cases that are different but have similar outcomes (derived from the 'method of agreement').

What is the Social Contract, and how did Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau view human nature and governance?

The Social Contract is a formal or informal agreement where the ruled submit to laws in exchange for benefits to avoid anarchy. Hobbes viewed humans as selfish and life as 'nasty, brutish, and short'; Locke emphasized natural rights and limited government; Rousseau argued that society suppresses natural rights and that legitimacy comes from a unified will.

How do political scientists distinguish among a state, a nation, and a country?

A state is a national-level organization administering legal and governmental policies within a designated territory. A nation is a population joined by common culture, history, language, or ancestry. A country encompasses aspects of both the nation and the state, and may contain one or more states or change state-type over time.

How are power and legitimacy defined, and what are the three types of legitimacy?

Power is the ability to get others to do what you want, split into soft power (persuasion/manipulation) and hard power (physical/aggressive measures). Legitimacy is the state's ability to establish itself as a valid power over citizens, relying on authority (the power to get things done). Its three types are Traditional, Charismatic, and Rational-Legal.

What distinguishes strong states from weak states, and what is political capacity?

Strong states effectively work political agendas, defend territory, collect taxes, enforce laws, and promote stability. Weak states are unable to perform basic tasks and lack legitimacy. Political capacity is the ability to use power derived from authority and legitimacy to get things done.

What is a regime, and what are its key types based on who holds power?

A regime is the method by which the state wields its power. Key types include: Anarchy (ruled by no one), Monarchy (ruled by one, often royal), Dictatorship (ruled by one with absolute power, e.g., personalist dictatorship), Aristocracy/Oligarchy (ruled by a few elites), Junta (ruled by a few military officers), and Democracy (ruled by many or all).

In the MSSD case study of Botswana and Somalia, what factors explain their divergent political outcomes?

Botswana became Africa's oldest stable democracy because it was largely left alone by British colonial powers and possessed a pre-existing consensus culture. Somalia became a historically stateless failed state due to a turbulent history under divided colonial rule by Britain and Italy, resulting in internal disputes and civil war.

What is the origin and literal meaning of the word 'democracy', and how do direct and representative democracies differ?

Originating in Ancient Greece (Athens), 'democracy' comes from Greek dēmos ('people') and kratos ('power' or 'rule'), meaning supreme power is vested in the people. In a direct democracy, citizens vote directly on laws and policies, while in an indirect/representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make decisions.

What standards define free and fair elections?

Elections are free when all eligible citizens can vote without prevention. They are fair when all votes carry equal weight, are counted accurately, and the results are accepted.

How do liberal democracies, flawed democracies, and illiberal democracies differ?

Liberal democracies facilitate free and fair elections while ensuring the protection of civil liberties. Flawed democracies have elections and basic liberties, but corruption or structural issues hamper the process. Illiberal democracies hold elections, but fail to protect civil liberties.

What are the three branches of government under the Separation of Powers, and how do checks and balances function?

The branches are the Legislature (making laws), Executive (carrying out/enforcing laws; acts as head of government and head of state), and Judiciary (interpreting laws and constitutionality, including judicial review). Checks and balances prevent any single branch from becoming too powerful.

What are the defining characteristics of plurality, majoritarian, and proportional electoral systems?

In a plurality system ('first-past-the-post'), the candidate with the most votes wins. In a majoritarian system, a candidate must win an absolute majority, which often requires a runoff election. In a proportional system, legislative seats are awarded to reflect political divisions and vote shares.

What are the structural features, advantages, and disadvantages of a Presidential System?

It features a single executive elected to a fixed term separate from the legislature. Its main advantage is stability and fixed terms, while its disadvantages include potential deadlock, systemic rigidity, and winner-take-all exclusion.

What are the structural features, advantages, and disadvantages of a Parliamentary System?

The chief executive (Prime Minister) is drawn from and held accountable to the legislature. Its advantages include dependence on legislative approval and easier removal of the executive, while disadvantages include potential government instability and the lack of a direct popular election for chief executive.

What are the structural features, advantages, and disadvantages of a Semi-Presidential System?

It features a dual executive: a popularly elected president alongside a prime minister and cabinet elected by the legislature. Its advantage is a division of labor/work, while its disadvantages include potential executive confusion and institutional bias favoring the president.

What is democratic consolidation, and what indicators are used to evaluate it?

Democratic consolidation is a regime transition process wherein new democracies evolve into established, enduring systems that are unlikely to revert to authoritarianism. Key indicators include the two-election test and the longevity test.

In comparing Third Wave regime transitions, what similarities and differences exist between South Africa and Iraq?

Both shared a history of colonialism, 20th-century minority rule, and external pressure. However, South Africa transitioned peacefully following the abolishment of Apartheid under an equality-focused constitution (though it remains a flawed democracy struggling with racism and corruption), whereas Iraq transitioned through external invasion and political violence, struggling with instability, sectarianism, and failure to consolidate.