Psych Chapter 2

scientific method

a step by step process used to gain knowledge through empirical evidence

Scientific attitudes

curiosity, skepticism, and open mindedness, each claim needs evidence and possibility of another explanation, as well as conclusion must be open minded

Steps of scientific process

1. Identify a question of interest

2. Gather information and form a hypothesis (If, then)

3. Test hypothesis by conducting research

4. Analyze data, draw conclusions and report findings

5. Build a body of knowledge, ask more questions, conduct more research, develop and test theories

Theory

set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to one another, broader than hypothesis

• When research supports the hypothesis derived from the theory, the theory strengthens, if it does not support, then the theory will need to be modified or discarded

  
  

Two approaches of understanding behaviour

hindsight, & prediction, control and theory building

Hindsight

after the fact understanding

• cognitive tendency to believe an event was predictable all along after you already know how it turned out, problems can be overconfidence and unfair blame, but hindsight reasoning can provide valuable insights

  
  

Prediction, control and theory building

“what causes what” to understand the cause of given behaviour and be able to predict the conditions that it happens again in in the future

• can allow us to control those conditions to produce that behaviour, theory development generates integrated network of predictions

Law of parsimony

if two theories can predict and explain the same thing equally well, the simpler theory is preferred

Variable

• any characteristic or factor that can vary (sex, age, income, GPA, self esteem, stress, intelligence)

Operational definition

defines a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it and translate abstract concepts into something observable and measurable

Ways to measure variables

• self report measures

• direct observations

• coding systems

• unobtrusive measure

• archival measure

• psychological tests

• physiological measures

Descriptive research (recording events)

Identify how humans and other animals behave in a natural settings, methods;

Case studies

in depth analysis of an individual, group, or event, to discover principles of behaviour that are true for people or situations in general

case study advantages

studying closely, can challenge validity of a theory, new ideas and hypotheses

case study disadvantages

poor method for cause and effect relations, not generalized, observer may not be objective, instead subjective

Naturalistic observation

observing behaviour in natural settings and avoids influencing that behaviour

naturalistic pros

unmanipulated results, reflects every day actions, detailed information

naturalistic cons

no clear conclusion, risk of any observer can disrupt behaviour, habituation is not time efficient

survey research

information is obtained by questionnaires or interviews to many people, 2 concepts include population and sample

survey population

entire set of individuals the conclusion is coming from

survey sample

subset drawn from individuals, which must be representative

survey pros

efficient, revealing changes in people's beliefs

survey cons

poor method for cause and effect relations, results can be distorted by social disability bias and other bias, unrepresentative samples can lead to generalizations, unreliable

Correlational research

measures two or more naturally occurring variables and examines whether they are statistically related, 3 components;

• Researcher measures one variable X

• Researcher measures another variable Y

• Researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related

correlational research pros

examinations of issues that cannot be studied in experiments, allows prediction

correlational research cons

does not imply causation, third variable problem

Correlational research: third variable problem

Instead variable Z may be what is responsible for the relation between X and Y, as Z varies it causes X and Y to change but X and y don't have a direct effect on each other

• Therefore cannot draw conclusions from correlation data, disadvantage

Correlation coefficient

statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a relation between 2 variables

• can be positive or negative

positive correlation

• higher scores on variable X are associated with higher scores on variable Y, ex; height and weight

negative correlation

• higher scores on variable X are associated with lower scores on variable Y, ex; test anxiety and test performance

  
  

Experiments (examining cause and effect)

manipulating an independent variables under controlled conditions and measuring whether this produces changes in a dependent variable

3 characteristics of an experiment

1. Researcher manipulates one or more variable (controls)

2. Researcher measures whether this manipulation influences other variables

3. Researcher attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome of the experiment

experiment pros

optimal method for examining cause and effect, ability to control outside factors, rules out other explanations

experiment cons

placebo effects, can be bias

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

dependent variable

the factor or data that is measured by the experimenter and that may influenced by the independent variable, can have multiple

experimental group

the group that receives a treatment or an active level of the independent variable

control group

is not exposed to the treatment or receives zero level of the independent variable, provides a standard of behaviour that can be compared

2 ways to design experiments

• between groups

• repeated measures

between groups

experimental design in which each experimental group is a different set of participants, and participants are randomly assigned to either group of the experiment to ensure equalness

repeated meaures

experimental design where each participant in an experiment is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable, and counterbalancing is used where the order of conditions is varied so no condition has an advantage

Ethical standards in human research- monitored by Tri-council

If a study is considered ethically questionable or participants are not protected then the method of research must be modified or cannot be conducted

CPA’s Canadian code of ethics for psychologists

Protect and promote welfare of participants, avoid harm to participants, only carry the study if benefit is greater than the risk, provide informed consent (oral or written and the right to withdraw at anytime), consent can’t be under coercion, ensure privacy and confidentiality

incomplete disclosure or deception

participants are misled about the nature of a study, is permitted when no other alternative is possible and participants must be debriefed at the end of the study with the true purpose of the study

Respect for indigenous protocols and knowledge systems

researchers should respect indigenous laws, traditions and cultural practices and that every community is different with different values

community engagement and consultation

engaging with communities from the start of the research to have meaningful consultations and collaborations

capacity building

research projects should aim to to strengthen and build skills, systems and capacity within the communities

ethical conduct

researchers must follow community ethics boards that exist

data sovereignty

recognizing and respecting the ownership and control of data by indigenous communities

reciprocity and benefit

research should provide tangible benefits for indigenous communities involved

transparency and accountability

having open communication with communities and being accountable for research process and outcomes

cultural competence

researchers should try to develop cultural competence like understanding and respecting the culture and perspectives

Ethical standard in Animal research- monitored by CCAC (Canadian Council on Animal Care)

federal government and CPA stating experimental animals should not be subject to pain, stress, or privation unless no other procedure is possible and research is justified

Cognitive Dissonance- Festinger

describes the state of mental discomfort or tension experienced when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or ideas, or when their behavior conflicts with their attitudes

Scientific method (in class)

1. Identify the problem and formulate hypothesis

2. Design and execute the experiment

3. Determine the “truth”

4. Communicate the results

Hypothesis

tentative statement about a relation between 2 or more events

Theory (class)

collection of hypotheses, an organizing system, more general, elaborate

without proper control in experiment

experiment is confounded- messed up, can’t make statements you want to make

Communicating results

Publish a report of the experiment in various journals

Present a verbal description of results at a convention

Discuss in a book chapter

Observational methods

Collecting information about behaviour without trying to change it

• Non-participant- outsider perspective

• Participant- individual becomes part of the group they are studying

Festinger’s: When Prophesy Fails- claimed the world would end in 2020

when it didn’t, they claimed their belief saved the world

Internal validity

Degree to which experiment supports causal conclusion

Placebo effect

change in behaviour or reaction due to your expectations 

Demand Characteristcs

Cues in experiment convey hypothesis to participants

→ Participants “help” experimenter, give feedback they think is looked for, something about the experiment tells you how you are suggested to behave

→ Sight of a weapon can make you more aggressive (Geen and Berkowitz)

Experimenter expectancy

→ Issue with the experimenter

→ All the rats are the same, participants put them in cage, if you thought you were working with maze-bright, they learned faster than maze-dull rats, what you expected to happen changed the way you behaved and the way the results turned out

External validity

Degree to which results can be generalized and applied to other people, real-world settings, and time periods